

















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































library of congress, 

clla P*.Copyright No,_ 

SheltJUt G S 

,- 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



































. ' ** 

















cn 

CO 


< 

DS 

H 

C/3 

H 

H-« 

Q 

Z 

C 


►J 

hJ 

oq 

z 

K 

o 


He* 

CO 


o 3 

C 

'w 

O 


in 

v 

be 

3 

03 

o 


V 

te 

3 

o3 

o 

4-J 

c 

<u 

CO 

<u 

u 

CU 


Q 

< 

O 

p 4 

►J 

OS 


Z 

> 

C/3 

z 

z 

w 

Oh 


w 

K 

H 


r ’ o 
O - 

Tt 


X 

'o 


c/T 

i~ 

1 / 

T 3 

C 


</3 

13 

v 

& 

bfi 

c 

’> 


>> n 


U Q 


* 



! 









































p 

< 

o 

<& 

p 

M 

< 

Pi 


in 

£ 

O 

.. • o 

TO 

*" o 

« co 

C/3 

Jr; w 
Si u 

> <u 
w > 

Q 'C 
^ Q 

° c 
u o 

4> 

•*-» *-> 
OJ J3 

£ “ 

03 4 ) 

5 ^ 


z 

< 

> 

p 

>< 

C/3 

z 

z 

w 

Oh 

o 

fcn 

w 

z 


o 

z 

w 


4 ) 

P 5 

O 

«-> 

C/3 


Tf 

N 


a X 


^ w 
S *2 

M G 

» © 
U* Cu 

V 

•§ K 

.5 M 
U s 

«3 

O C/3 
V- £ 

s 9 * 

6 « 
rt rr 
o 

Q 03 



















Du Witt Clinton,” New York Central Railroad, 1831. 






























Engine 999, New York Central Railroad, 1S93. 

Diameter of Cylinders, 19" X 24" stroke. Diameter of Drivers, 87". 

Boiler-pressure, 180 pounds. Weight on Drivers, 82,200 pounds. 

Speed, ]02 miles per hour. 






























Locomotive Mechanism 

AND 

Engineering. 


WITH AN APPENDIX ON 

THE MODERN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 


BY 

H. C. REAGAN, Jr., 

Locofnotive Engineer. 


SECOND EDITION , REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
FIRST THOUSAND. 


f V\ 

SEP 191896) 

yf/3- 6 



NEW YORK: 

JOHN WILEY & SONS. 

London : CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 

1S96. 



S' 



Copyright, 1896, 

BY 

John Wiley & Sons. 




ROBERT DRUMMOND. KI.KCTROTYl’EK AND l'RINTH K, NKW YORK. 




THIS BOOK 

IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED TO THOSE 

Xoco motive ^Engineers anD firemen 

Who are trying to Increase their Knowledge of the Steam 
Power under their Control, Decrease the Chance 
of Accident, Increase the Safety of Human 
Lives, and Give Greater Satisfaction 
to their Employers, 

by 

THEIR FRIEND THE AUTHOR, 

WHO is practically 


ONE OF THEM. 



PREFACE. 


The author, who is a practical engineer, attempts in 
this book to write a practical treatise on the Locomo¬ 
tive Engine, and has tried to describe the manner in 
which the locomotive is handled while in service. 

There are many excellent books on the locomotive, 
but there is one portion of the subject which, in the 
author’s opinion, has not yet been covered. 

The man who wishes to understand an engine thor¬ 
oughly will learn more by watching repairs made in 
the shop, or in case of accident on the road, when the 
engine is disconnected, than if the method were de¬ 
scribed to him in so many words; for he thus sees the 
actual construction, break, and repairs. 

The author has illustrated this book with this pur¬ 
pose in view, and has made most of the drawings him¬ 
self. 

Where others are used due credit is given, and there¬ 
fore it may be truly said the drawings represent actual 
practice. 

The text contains also a full explanation of the 
drawings, questions are asked and answered on the 
construction of the locomotive and its performances, 



VI 


PREFA CE. 


and complete directions are given as to what should 
be done in case of emergency. 

The reasons for first explaining the construction and 
action and then asking and answering questions are 
three: first, when a question is asked and answered, 
and the reader does not thoroughly understand the 
construction and action of mechanism, the questions 
and answers will not be clear to him; second, the 
reader will be more vividly impressed by reviewing the 
questions and answers; third, the questions and an¬ 
swers are so arranged that the book can be used by 
Master Mechanics or Travelling Engineers for the ex¬ 
amination of candidates for promotion, or by the 
demonstrator in the Lodge Room. 

An effort has been made to present to the reader a 
full and clear explanation of the Compound Locomo¬ 
tive, showing the construction of different systems in 
actual use, and giving the method of disconnecting 
such engines when broken down. 

The author has illustrated the principal “ break¬ 
downs ” that happen to a locomotive, so that when 
one actually occurs on the road the engineer can com¬ 
pare the break with the illustrations in the book, and 
find out exactly what should be done. 

Each part of the mechanism is named in the illus¬ 
trations as a guide to the engineer in making out work 
reports. 

I am indebted to the proprietors of the works whose 
Compound Locomotives are shown in this book, for 
drawings and photographs; to the Westinghouse and 
New York Air-brake companies, and other manufactu¬ 
rers whose appliances have been illustrated and de- 


PREFA CE. 


vil 


scribed ; and to the Railroad Gazette for part of the 
description of the Brooks Two Cylinder and Schenec¬ 
tady Compounds. 

If the book fulfils the mission for which it was 
written, the author will consider that his labor has 
been rewarded. 

H. C. Reagan, Jr. 

Locomotive Engineer. 

Philadelphia, January, 1894. 


PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 


As electricity is developing very rapidly in all direc¬ 
tions, and especially in the method of transportation, 
the Electric Locomotive as a motive power is naturally 
attracting the attention of the officials of the larger rail¬ 
road. The development in the street-railroad service 
has also been phenomenal. There are very large elec¬ 
tric locomotives at work daily on some of the trunk 
lines, and they are doing the work successfully; hence 
it appears as if they had come to stay, and that more 
may be expected in the future. The author, having 
this thought in his mind, believes now is the time for 
those who are to-day handling our steam locomotives 
to investigate the working and construction of the elec¬ 
trical locomotive, although he does not believe it is 
going to displace the steam locomotive immediately. 
Such a change will be gradual rather than instan¬ 
taneous. He has tried to make the description and 
operation of an electric motor as simple as possible, 




Vlll 


PREFA CE. 


that it may be readily understood by the average 
reader, and in the hope that it will be instructive and 
therefore lead to a further investigation of the subject. 
Thinking it a good plan, he has therefore incorporated 
the description of the electric locomotive with the book 
entitled “ Locomotive Mechanism and Engineering,” 
which has been received so kindly by the locomotive 
enginemen. It was thought proper to give a descrip¬ 
tion of the street-railroad and stationary motor as a 
stepping-stone to the larger motor used on the electric 
locomotive, since there is no great difference in their 
principles, but in their size and method of connecting 
with the axles the method of control is nearly the same. 
The locomotives which receive their supply of current 
from a central station and those which generate their 
own current, and in fact are a travelling central station, 
are shown. 

I am indebted to the Electrical World , the Electric 
Engineer, and the Railroad Gazette for some data 
and cuts relative to the several electric locomotives 
shown ; also to the General Electric Company for cuts 
of their electric locomotive, and others whose apparatus 
is shown. 

H. C. Reagan, Jr. 

Philadelphia, March ist, 1896, 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

The Locomotive Boiler ... i 

CHAPTER II. 

Front End, or Smoke Arch . 14 

CHAPTER III. 

Steam-cylinders and Connections. 18 

CHAPTER IV. 

Locomotive Frames, Driving-boxes, and Spring Rigging.... 35 

CHAPTER V. 

Rods and Connections. 48 

CHAPTER VI. 

Breaking of Rods. 58 

CHAPTER VII. 

Valve-motion. 63 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Valve-setting. 81 

ix 










X 


CONTENTS . 


CHAPTER IX. 

PAGE 

The Compound Locomotive. 87 

CHAPTER X. 

Indicator-cards. 98 

CHAPTER XI. 

Description of Various Systems of Compound Locomo¬ 
tives. 102 

CHAPTER XII. 

Injectors, Safety-valves, Steam-gauges, etc. 181 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Brakes, Air-pumps, Valves, Pijmp-governors, and Westing- 
house Brakes.. 226 







LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND 

ENGINEERING. 


CHAPTER I. 

THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 

The best subject with which to start is the lomoco- 
tive boiler, of which there are two illustrations. Fig. 
i is a wagon-top boiler. Fig. 2 is a Belpaire boiler, 
which is now being used on many roads. 

The principal difference between them is the shape 
of boiler over fire-box, and the method of staying. In 
the Belpaire boiler the back end over fire-box is nearly 
square, there being a radius on the corner for bending. 
The Belpaire boiler also uses radial stays, thus obviat¬ 
ing the necessity of using crown-bars and sling-stays ; 
which seems an advantage, as it not so complicated, 
and the mud cannot accumulate on the crown-sheet, 
as it does when using crown-bars. The sheets can 
adjust themselves to each other better under different 
pressures and change of temperature. 

The principal parts of a boiler are the fire-box, flues, 
dome, steam or dry pipe, throttle-valve, the smoke- 
arch in which are the steam-pipes leading to each 
steam-chest, the exhaust-nozzles, and the stack. 



2 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


That portion of boiler which is over the fire-box 
must be very strongly stayed with either crown-bars or 
radial stays. The Belpaire boiler is strengthened in 
the latter manner. This staying is necessary from the 
large area and the exposure to the hottest part of the 
fire. 

The dome is for the purpose of providing a reser¬ 
voir for dry steam and in it the throttle-valve is placed 



as high as possible above the water-line, to prevent 
entrained water from being carried over into cylinder, 
which is detrimental to the engine, and might cause a 
cylinder-head to be knocked out, if in large quantities. 

The throttle-valve is a double disk (Fig. 3) having 
two seats in the steam-pipe. The disks are of nearly 
the same diameter, in order to balance. 

The top disk is the larger, so that the throttle will 
stay closed, due to the greater pressure on top, hold- 
































































^TIIE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 


3 


ing valve down to seat. The difference in area, how¬ 
ever, is not sufficient to make the throttle open with 
difficulty. 

To the lower disk is attached a link K. This link is 
connected with a bell-crank lever P, which has its ful¬ 
crum on steam-pipe. 

On the lower end of bell-crank lever is the throttle- 
rod 5. To this on the outside of the boiler is the 



Be.liyjj.rt> Bailer Back End 

Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 


throttle-lever, which every ambitious fireman is anxious 
to control. 

The dry pipe is put into a boiler to carry dry steam 
to the cylinders, the steam entering the pipe at 
throttle-valve in dome. If this was not provided, the 
boiler would prime. 

One of the most important things that an engineer 
should understand is the action of water in a boiler, 
and the effect of heat and impurities in the water. It 
often causes the student or beginner to wonder at the 
change of the water-line in a boiler when using and not 
using steam from it. 
































































4 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


It will be found that after the throttle is opened 
the water in the boiler has raised one gauge or more. 
This is caused by the release of pressure on water-line 
on the opening of the throttle. The water being in a 
state of ebullition, due to the intense heat from the 
fire, expands. Fig. i at letter B shows the water-line 
when the throttle is closed ; A, or dotted line, shows 
water when the throttle is open and using steam. 

Another cause of water rising in the boiler is due to 
impurities in the water, such as salt, oil, soap, and vege¬ 
table matter. These produce foaming, and frequently 
cause a boiler to be burned and an engineer to lose his 
position. 

It is also important that an engineer should be able 
to detect at the earliest moment the beginning of 
foaming. The symptoms are as follows : On trying 
the gauge-cock it will be found that water is gaining 
very rapidly, notwithstanding the fact that he has not 
readjusted his injector, or changed the point of cut-off 
in his cylinder s. Also, if the engine is foaming very 
badly, water will appear at the stack, in a light lathery 
foam. If, then, the throttle is closed, the water will 
fall probably to the bottom gauge-cock, or below, and 
this is a dangerous action. Now if the water should 
fall below the bottom gauge, and the engineer is 
desirous of finding out where the water is, he should 
open the throttle suddenly or frequently by blowing 
the whistle, and if there is water near the bottom 
gauge-cock it will show. If water shows, the boiler 
should be filled up to top gauge, and the surface blow 
opened, keeping the injectors on while it is open, in 
order to keep the water-line up. 


THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 5 

By doing this the water can be changed, and that 
which contains the impurities blown off. 

It should be remembered that there is a difference 
between foaming and priming. Priming is caused by 
too much water in the boiler, or by a cracked, dry 
pipe, or by a dome of too small diameter. 

When there is too much water in the boiler and the 
throttle is opened, the water is carried over with 
steam into the cylinder, as is shown in Fig. i, in dome. 

This is a very bad practice, and is far from econom¬ 
ical. The water which is thus carried over contains 
heat, which is wasted, because this water which con¬ 
tains the heat does not expand to any considerable 
degree, and therefore does not give out any effective 
power, while it reduces the expansive force of the 
steam with which it mingles. 

Remember, also, that dry steam is capable of doing 
more work than wet steam, and is therefore more 
economical, while with it there is less danger of break¬ 
ing the engine down, or cutting valves and seats. 

It is very important that all gauge-cocks should be 
kept open, and especially, under all circumstances, the 
bottom one. 

When water-gauge glasses are used, the glass and 
valves should be open and free, for it is dangerous for 
them to be clogged up, as the glass will not then 
register correctly. 

Water-gauge glasses are equipped with automatic¬ 
closing valves, so that when from any cause the glass 
is broken the steam and water will not escape into the 
cab, scalding the engineer and fireman ; also prevent 
the loss of water and endangering the crown-sheet, if 


6 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


broken when no one is around. The sketch at A , 
A' shows a very simple form of automatic valve. 
This valve will grind out any sediment that may collect 
on the seat. The grooves or wings are in the form of a 
spiral. By screwing the button or main valve towards 
the seat until the pin C extends through far enough 
to let the automatic valve come up against it, this forms 
an axis for valve A. By opening the pet-cock at bot¬ 
tom of glass, the steam will pass through the wings of 
automatic valves A, A \ causing them to revolve rapidly. 
Grind-seat and passage open the valve B wide when 
done grinding. Most all glasses have ball-valves which 
close automatically. Water in a gauge-glass should 
fluctuate freely with the water-line. If it does not do 
this, but stands motionless in the glass, the valves are 
dogged up and should be blown out. It is policy to 
do this before starting out, on each trip. 

The fire-box needs very little explanation, as its 
purpose is evident to all; but most fire-boxes are 
equipped with brick arches, which improve combustion 
by maintaining the gases at an igniting temperature. 
This is due to the brick becoming incandescent, and 
also to the brick deflecting the cold air as it comes 
into the fire-door when open, and preventing it from 
rushing into the flues and chilling the gases. Fig. i 
shows the course of the gases to the smoke-box, and 
the appliances therein, as will be seen by referring to 
the drawing. D is the diaphragm, which serves the 
purpose of regulating the draught through flues and in 
fire-box. If the diaphragm was not used, the draught 
would be through the top flues, and burn out the back 
end of fire, especially in a long fire-box. 



AUTOMATIC 

VALVE 

INSIDE or 

BOIL E R 


NO STEAM W/LL ESCAPE IF BROKEN OFF AT 

E or F 



Water Gauge Glass. 


Fig. 4 . 
















































































































































8 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


There is also used what is called a petticoat-pipe, to 
fill the purpose of a diaphragm. This is made sepa¬ 
rately, and can be raised and lowered to regulate the 
draught. 

The exhaust-nozzles Z are the outlet of the exhaust- 
steam from cylinders, and create a vacuum in the front 
end or smoke-arch, which causes a draught on the fire 
by the air rushing through the gates and fire to fill up 
the vacuum in the front end. 

Fig. i represents an extended smoke-arch. The 
extension is for the purpose of catching cinders and 
sparks. The cinders are prevented from getting out 
of the stack by netting, Fig. I, N. This netting is 
extended across the smoke-arch, so that the sparks 
and cinders strike the netting and fall back into the 
extension. 


QUESTIONS. 

How does the steam get from the boiler to the 
steam-pipe ? 

Through the throttle-valve into steam or dry pipe, to 
steam-pipe in front end and steam-passage in saddle. 

What is the form of the throttle-valve ? 

It is a double disk-valve, and nearly balanced. 

Why is it nearly balanced, and which disk is the 
larger ? 

It is balanced in order to be easily opened, a-nd the 
top disk is the larger. 

For what purpose is the dome, and where is it 
placed ? 

The steam dome is the highest point on the boiler 
holding steam, and is so placed to hold dry steam. 


THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 


9 


Where is it placed ? 

In wagon-top boiler, over the fire-box, as in Fig. i. 

For what purpose is the steam-pipe in boiler ? 

To carry dry steam from dome to steam-chests. 

What is a crown-bar? 

A bar over the crown-sheet, with its end supported 
on the side sheet of fire-box. 

For what purpose is it used? 

To support the crown-sheet, as in Fig. i. 

What is the water-line in a boiler? 

The line on the top of the water in boiler which 
varies with the height and level of water in the boiler. 

What is the effect of low water in a boiler ? 

Low water is dangerous, and it is liable to burn the 
sheets or flues if the water is too low. 

How is it known how much water there is in a 
boiler ? 

By trying the gauge-cocks. 

What causes the water to rise when the throttle is 
open ? 

The pressure is released on the water-line, and the 
heat causes the water to expand. 

What causes a boiler to foam ? 

Impurities in the water, such as oil, soap, salt, and 
vegetable matter. 

How is it known when a boiler is foaming? 

By the sudden increase of the water in the boiler. 
If it is foaming badly, it is also shown by the appear¬ 
ance of foamy water at stack. 

If a boiler had four gauges of water when the throt¬ 
tle was open, how many would be in it when the 
throttle was closed r 


10 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


If foaming badly, water would probably be found in 
the bottom gauge. 

H ow could the water be found in the boiler if water 
dropped below the bottom gauge-cock ? 

By opening the throttle suddenly or by blowing the 
whistle. 

Should more water be put in the boiler if water 
thus appeared ? 

It should. 

What should be done to prevent water from foaming 
after finding it ? 

The injectors should be put on and the boiler filled 
up, then the surface-cock opened and the impure water 
blown out of the boiler. 

What is a water-gauge glass ? 

A glass tube on the back of the boiler for indicating 
the level or amount of water in the boiler. 

If the water-glass should break, what should be 
done ? 

All water-glasses are supposed to have automatic¬ 
closing valves, so that when a glass breaks the pressure 
will close them ; but if they should not, it would be best 
to shut the hand-valves. 

If an engineer is running along and he finds that the 
water in the glass does not fluctuate, what is supposed 
to be the matter ? 

That the valves are closed or clogged up. 

What should be done to make the glass indicate cor¬ 
rectly ? 

Open blow-off valve and blow the water out of the 
glass, and see that the steam and water valves are 
open. 


the Locomotive boiler. 


i i 


What is priming in a boiler, and what causes it? 

Priming is entrained water in the steam, and carried 
over into the cylinder. It is caused by too great a 
quantity in boiler, or too small steam space and dome. 
It may also be caused by working the engine too hard. 

What effect has priming on the working of the en¬ 
gine ? 

It reduces the power of the engine, by reducing the 
expansive power of the steam with which it mingles ; 
and is wasteful, because it carries off heat that does no 
work in the cylinder. It is also injurious to the valves 
and seat by destroying lubrication. 

Which is the more powerful, dry or wet steam ? 

Dry steam. 

ACCIDENTS TO BOILER AND ATTACHMENTS. 

When a throttle-valve becomes disconnected and re¬ 
mains open, what should be done to get train under 
control ? 

The reverse-lever should be put in the centre notch 
of quadrant, the steam-pressure reduced, and the train 
controlled by the air-brakes. 

When the whistle-valve is broken, what should be 
done ? 

The whistle-bell should be filled with waste or any 
material to prevent the whistle from sounding, d he 
engine can be run in this manner. Calculation must 

o 

be made for the extra amount of water blown away 
free in steam. 

When the whistle-stem is broken off, what should be 
done ? 


12 LO COMO TIVE ME CHA NISM A ND ENGINEERING. 


In this case the fire must be put out, as the escape 
of steam would be too great ; but care must be taken 
that the water must not leave the crown-sheet before 
the fire is out. 

Could the injectors be put on to maintain the water 
in boiler while fire is being knocked out ? 

Yes, if put on immediately. Good judgment must 
be used in cases of this kind. 

When a wreck occurs and the engine has studs 
pulled out, or boiler-check broken out, what should be 
done to prevent burning the boiler? 

If possible to get at the engine, and escaping steam 
would not interfere, the fire should be covered with 
sand, sod, or anything to dampen the fire, and then 
water put on if procurable. Do not undertake to put 
water on first, as it will be liable to burn the person so 
doing, as the steam and gas will rush out the fire-door. 

When a blow-off cock is cracked or broken off, what 
should be done, and should the injector be put on? 

The fire should be gotten out of the box if possible. 
In regard to the injector being put on, it would depend 
on the size of opening and the amount of water in 
boiler, or if the fire could be gotten out before the 
water left the crown-sheet. If the injectors would put 
water in the boiler faster than it was escaping, it would 
be policy to put them on, or if water is on the crown- 
sheet. 

In cases when the fire must be knocked out of fire¬ 
box, and the engine is standing where any live coals 
would set fire to the material underneath the engine, 
what should be done ? 


THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 


13 


The ash-pan dampers must be closed. (This applies 
to bridges and trestles also.) 

Is it possible to bulge or drop a crown without it 
being burned ? 

Yes, it is possible, and is due to poor material in the 
crown stay-bolts, or a pressure in excess of the strength 
of material. In a case of this kind the fire is put out 
on account of the water rushing into the fire-box. The 
same occurs when a flue bursts. In either case the 
engineer and fireman are in immediate danger. 

When the throttle becomes disconnected and closes 
how can steam be gotten into the cylinders to move it ? 

By the tallow-pipe valve. 

In case of a dry-pipe bursting, what should be done? 

The reverse-lever should be put in the centre notch, 
and the steam-pressure reduced. Control the engine 
by the brakes. If wheels should slip, do not use sand, 
as there is a possibility of making a wreck of the en¬ 
gine. 


CHAPTER II. 


FRONT END, OR SMOKE-ARCH. 

The steam-pipes in smoke-arch are connected to the 
end of steam or dry-pipe, which is called bulkhead or 
tee pipe, and joined to steam-passage in saddle, as in 
Fig. 5. The pipes have ball-joints, so that they may 
contract or expand (Fig. 6) as they are subject to vary¬ 
ing temperatures. 

Some builders use a ball and flat-ring joint, forming 
a rotating and sliding joint. The steam-pipes are fas¬ 
tened to the saddle or bed-casting, on shoulders or 
joints on the saddle, by studs. 

These studs become corroded in time, and are very 
difficult to get out, especially when the engine is warm. 
The reader will keep this in mind for future purpose. 

The exhaust-pipes (Fig. 5) are the double exhaust- 
nozzle, or an exhaust-nozzle for each cylinder. The 
single exhaust-pipe is used on some roads with good 
results. 

The engineer and fireman will frequently find that 
the engine, after steaming excellently for a while, will 
suddenly commence to steam poorly, and it puzzles 
them to understand it. 

The difficulty is often found in the front end or 
smoke-arch, and is frequently caused by a loose ex¬ 
haust-pipe, causing back draught and impairing the 

M 


FRONT END , OR SMOKE-ARCH. 


15 


vacuum in the front end. Sometimes the steam-pipe 
joints are leaking, which produces the same effect as a 
loose exhaust-pipe. Another cause is a loose dia- 

Fig. 5 . 



Fig. 6 . 

phragm, which, having dropped down, spoils the 
draught on the fire. Other defects are a loose thim¬ 
ble on the end of the exhaust-pipe, and cinder cap off 
of the hopper or side of the extension. Another great 






























16 L 0 COMO TJ VE ME CHA NISM A ND ENGINEERING. 


misfortune is the burning or warping of the extension, 
which is caused by the extension being filled with live 
cinders, while there is an air-hole or crack, into which 
the air rushes and comes in contact with the so-called 
cinder (which is in reality good coke), which has been 
drawn through the flues from the fire-box. This causes 
an intense heat around the air-hole, and burns the iron. 
Sometimes it is caused by the front door and frame 
being cracked, or the clamps loosened, or the door 
partly opened. Care should be taken that these are 
tight, and also that the front end should be cleaned 
out when full, as it interferes with the draught by cov¬ 
ering up the front end of flues. Do not, however, do 
this while running, as it will blow back among the 
machinery and produce a very bad effect, and cause 
the parts to be cut and run warm. 

QUESTIONS. 

How are the steam-pipes fastened to the dry or 
steam pipe in the front end ? 

By being bolted to the bulkhead or tee. 

What provision is made for contraction and expan¬ 
sion ? 

The joints have ball rings having a round and flat 
face fitting between the joint of the two pipes, as in 
Fig. 6. 

What is the effect if the steam-pipe or the exhaust- 
pipe leaks? 

It destroys the draught, and causes the engine to 
steam poorly. 

For what is a diaphragm used? 


FRONT END , OR SMOKE-ARCH. 


1 7 


To regulate the draught on fire and through flues. 

How is the draught regulated by the diaphragm ? 

By raising or lowering the movable portion. 

What is the effect of an air-hole, cracks, or a door 
partly open, on an engine having an extension, when 
full of cinders ? 

Will burn front end, crack door-frame, and spoil the 
appearance of the engine. 


CHAPTER III. 


STEAM-CYLINDERS AND CONNECTION. 

LOCOMOTIVE steam-cylinders are made from the best 
cylinder iron, which should be hard and free from blow¬ 
holes, but not too hard to be turned and bored out, and 
capable of having smooth cylinder walls in contact 
with the piston-head. 

The cylinders are cast separately, in American prac¬ 
tice, and bolted together, and are so constructed as to 
be neither rights nor lefts. There are three parts or 
names to a cylinder-casting, viz., cylinder, steam-chest, 
and saddle. 

In the steam-chest, which is on the top of the cylin¬ 
der, is the main steam-valve, which controls the inlet 
and outlet of the steam from the cylinder; and on the 
valve-seat proper, in most locomotives, is a loose or ad¬ 
justable seat, capable of being renewed when worn out, 
without doing away with the cylinder. 

Some engines have the seat cast with the cylinder, 
and when worn down have the false-seat attached. 

In the steam-chest are five steam-ports, as will be 
seen in Fig. 7. 1 and 5 are the receiving-ports or open¬ 
ings of the steam-passages in the steam-chest. The 
steam-passage is divided. The passage or core, begin- 
ningat B in Fig. 7, passes down on the top of exhaust- 

18 


STEAM-CYLINDERS AND CONNECTION. 


19 


passage and branches on each side of the exhaust core or 
passage, the walls of exhaust passage serving for both. 

There seems to be a serious objection to this, from 
the fact of the difference in temperature of the steam 
in steam-passage and the exhaust-steam in the exhaust- 
passage, as it causes an unequal contraction and expan¬ 
sion, which often cracks the saddle, and also robs the 
steam of some degrees of heat. 

Fig. 7. 



Back Head outside view Front Head inside view 


Fig. 8. Fig. 10. 

Port 3 is the exhaust-port leading to the exhaust 
passages or core A, and leads the exhaust-steam from 
the cylinder to exhaust-pipe : so there are three pas¬ 
sages or cores in the saddle. 

o 

Ports 2 and 4 are the steam-ports from steam-chest 
to cylinder, and through these ports all the steam 
passes that moves our trains over the roads. The steam 
passes out the same port after expanding and doing its 
work in the cylinder, which is governed by the valve. 


















































20 LOCOMOTIVE MECHAN1SM AND ENGINEERING. 


Fig. 7 is a top view of the cylinder, valve-seat, and 
ports, also steam-chest and top of saddle. The flange 
on saddle has the same radius as smoke-arch, and is 
fastened to the same by bolts. 

The cylinder is bolted fast to a frame, through a 
flange which is cast on the cylinder and the centre of 
frame. Also, there is a key or wedge on the sides of 
the saddle, to take up any lost motion of the saddles. 



Fig. II is a longitudinal sectional view of a cylinder, 
piston-head, steam-ports, steam-chest, and valve. Fig. 
7 shows only the top view of the steam-ports. Fig. 11 
shows plainly how the steam-ports are. As will be 
seen, the core or ports are nearly a right and left angle, 
running from the seat into cylinders at each end. There 
is a shell or wall left between the bore of cylinder and 
port, of sufficient thickness for wear and reboring. 

The exhaust-port is between the two steam-ports. 




































































STEAM-CYLINDERS AND CONNECTION. 


21 


That portion of metal between the ports is called a 
bridge. 

On the valve-seat, and working over these ports, is 
a steam-valve, which is a hollow shell having flanges 
around it, and is frequently called a D-valve, being of 
the shape of the letter D. 

In most engines of the present day the valves are 
balanced as nearly as possible. The object is to take 
as much pressure off the back of the valve as possible, 
in order to reduce the amount of power required to 
move valve, and also to prevent the excessive wear of 
valve and seat, so as to be easily handled by the en¬ 
gineer. 

The most common method of balancing is by put¬ 
ting bars on the back of valve, as in the Richardson 
valve, having a balance-plate fastened to steam-chest 
cover, as in Fig. 11. 

The bars have under them in grooves on the back of 
valve springs which force the bars up against the plate, 
making a steam-tight joint, or nearly so, and thus re¬ 
ducing the area of valve which is exposed to the down¬ 
ward pressure of the steam. 

There is a small hole in the centre of the valve, which 
releases the valve from any pressure that might be 
caused by steam getting past the bars. This hole 
opens into the exhaust cavity. 

By referring to Fig. u, you will see that the forward 
steam-port is wide open, and steam is passing into cylin¬ 
der against the piston-head. 

The exhaust-cavity of the valve is over the back of 
steam-port, and the exhaust-steam is passing out of the 
port into the- cavity of the valve, into exhaust-port. 


22 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


This action takes place for each end of the cylinder. 
The valve is encircled by a yoke, which has a stem 
passing out of steam-chest, through suitable packing. 

The valve is free in yoke, so as to adjust itself to the 
wear. 

The piston-head is an important factor in a locomo¬ 
tive, and without it we could not handle our trains as 
we do, as there is nothing yet constructed that can 
take the place of a piston-head, and with as little com¬ 
plication. What is essential in a locomotive is a smooth¬ 
working, steam-tight piston. The power of the engine 
principally depends on the area of the piston-head in 
square inches, as the larger the piston-head the greater 
the power of the steam-pressure. 

The most common method of making a piston-head 
tight is by cutting grooves in head, and springing cast- 
iron rings into the grooves, whose diameter is larger 
than the bore of the cylinder; then when put in the 
rings are compressed, and fit tightly against the walls of 
the cylinder. But when the rings become worn, they 
spread open where they have been cut, and the steam 
blows through, which creates a loss of heat and power, 
which is not economical. 

There are devices to prevent this, such as dowel-pins 
and lap-joints. Dowel-pins have a tendency to wear 
grooves in cylinder and let the steam blow through. 
Lap-joints or tongues break off and produce the same 
result. There is also danger of knocking out a cylin¬ 
der-head and doing other damage by means of broken 
tongues. 

A simple device, which has demonstrated itself to be 
a perfect remedy for this joint, and which is easily con- 


STEAM-CYLINDERS AND CONNECTION. 23 


structed, is shown in Fig. 12. It is called a break-joint 
block, and is in the form of a T, or a block having a 
tongue. This block is put in a groove back of ring 
groove of piston, and of the same depth and width. 
The tongue extends into ring groove, between ends of 
rings. 

This block should be carried on the bottom of the 
cylinder. 

The operation is as follows: The steam-pressure 



Fig.® <<i>» 


Rings Steam tight 
Block in Rings 



Opening of Ring on top of Piston Head 
Steam blowing through 


Fig. (7) trc” 

n „ — y 


<- 

4 . 

A’l _ 

4- 


♦ hJr 

t 



Wall of Cyl'. 

Fig.® “A.” Fig.®'“B” Fig. 

Break-Joint for Cylinder Packing Rinas 
E. F. Peacock, Pat’d 



Fig. 12 . 


drives the ends of rings against the block, making it 
the same as a solid ring, and the tongue prevents the 
ends of ring from turning around on the top. The 
block wears with the rings, due to gravity. This device 
recommends itself on account of its simplicity and ab¬ 
sence of springs or pins, and the results obtained from 
it after severe trials in all classes of locomotive service. 

We have another method of packing, in which the 
piston-head is made in sections (Fig. 13). This packing 
requires to be set out by the engineer when worn. 

The forward portion is called the spider. Between 
the arms are screw-studs, and on these are steel springs, 





























24 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

which bear against the wide or bull ring. On this ring 
are the two packing-rings, which are cut and bear out 
against the cylinder walls, due to the pressure of the 
springs on studs. 

The front plate is called the follower-plate, and is 
bolted fast to the spider. This form of packing is 
more expensive than the spring ring, and has some de¬ 
fects, namely, that of being set out too tightly, which 
causes excessive friction and wear of cylinder, and also 


Brass Iron 



Piston Head 

Fig. 13 . 


that the packing will sometimes fall and become fol¬ 
lower-bound. Figs. 8 and 10 show the front and back 
cylinder-head. 

As will be seen, there is a groove cut in head at B in 
order to prevent breaking off the face of the cylinder 
when a head is broken out. Attached to the piston- 
head is the piston-rod. 

This rod passes through the stuffing-box in cylinder- 
head, and is fastened in the sleeve of cross-head. Fig. 
11 shows the cross-head, which is of the vertical or two- 
bar type of cross-head, by some called the alligator 
cross-head. 

This cross-head consists of three parts, the main body 


















STEAM-CYLINDERS AND CONNECTION. 2$ 

(M), and the top and bottom shoe. This combination 
acts as a carrier for the back end of piston-rod. To 
the centre or wrist pin is attached the main rod, which 
is not shown in Fig. n. 

The shoes are made separate from the main portion 
of the cross-head, so that they can be taken off and 
re-lined or babbitted ; and if a shoe breaks, it can be 
replaced without throwing away the whole head. This 
cross-head slides between the two guide-bars, as in 
G G in Fig. n. These bars are fastened to the disks 
on stuffing-box, on the front end, and to a yoke at the 
back end. The most wear occurs on the top guide- 
bar and shoe. 

Some of our students may wonder as to the cause of 
this wear on the top guide in forward motion, and why 



it is more on the bottom guide in the backward motion. 
It is caused in this manner : In taking the back stroke, 
the pressure against the piston-head is pushing back the 
crank-pin, which is on the bottom quarter, the resist¬ 
ance is at pin below the centre-line of motion, through 
the piston-head, and there being a joint between the 
power (piston-head) and the resistance (crank-pin) 
causes the cross-head to be pushed up against the guide- 

























2 6 LOCO MO TICE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


bar, as in Fig. 14. In the forward stroke (forward 
motion) the cross-head is pulled up against the guide- 
bar, as in Fig. 14. 

In the backward motion this is reversed, and the 
wear is greater on the bottom guide-bar. This should 
be thoroughly understood by an engineer, as it will 
frequently aid him when he breaks a cross-head or 
shoe. 

There is the four-bar type or horizontal cross-head, 
to which these remarks also apply. 

QUESTIONS. 

How are the steam-cylinders made in American 
practice ? 

They are cast separately, and bolted together. 

Name the three parts of a cylinder. 

Cylinder, steam-chest, and saddle. 

Are there right and left hand cylinders? 

No, the cylinders are used for either side. 

Why can this be done ? 

Because the ports are in the same position when 
used on either side and the exhaust and steam passages 
are in the centre of the saddle, and the cylinder heads 
fit on either end of cylinder. 

How does the steam get from the steam-pipe to the 
steam-chest? 

Through the steam passage or core in the saddle, as 
in Fig. 7, B, which shows the passage on each side of 
the exhaust-passage, and from there through receiving 
ports, shown by 1, 5. 

How many ports in the steam-chest? 


* STEAM-CYLINDERS AND CONNECTION . 27 

Five. Two receiving-ports, two steam-ports, and one 
exhaust-port. 

For what purpose is the exhaust-port ? 

To let the steam that has expanded in the cylinder 
pass out into the exhaust-passage, as in Fig. 11. 

For what purpose are the steam-ports? 

Passages or ports to let the steam into cylinder from 
the steam-chest. 

Does the steam pass out the same port that it goes 
in? 

It does. 

What is the metal between the ports called ? 

Bridges. 

What controls the inlet and outlet of the steam from 
the cylinder? 

A valve. 

What is the shape of the valve ? 

It is in the form of the letter D, having a cavity in 
the centre, which is called the exhaust-cavity, as in 
Fig. 11. 

On what does the valve slide ? 

On a seat. 

What is a balanced valve ? 

A valve having almost all the pressure taken off the 
back. 

How is this done ? 

The most common method is by putting strips or 
bars in grooves on the back of the valve, and having a 
plate above the valve fastened to steam-chest cover, 
against which the bars slide, making a steam-tight joint, 
or nearly so, and thus reducing the area of valve which 


28 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


is subject to the downward pressure of the steam. (See 
Fig. ii.) 

What provision is made for the steam that might 
leak past the bars ? 

A hole is bored through the top of the valve into 
the exhaust-cavity, thus taking off any pressure that 
might accumulate. 

What is the advantage of a balanced valve ? 

It reduces the friction and wear of valve on seat, and 
requires less power to move the valve, and makes the 
reverse-lever easy to handle. 

What surrounds the valve? 

A yoke having stem passing out through stuffing 
box (Fig. 11). 

What and where is the pistondiead ? 

It is a round disk, against which the steam exerts its 
pressure. It slides in the cylinder. 

How is the power of an engine increased with a given 
steam-pressure. 

By increasing the size of the piston-head. 

How is a piston-head made tight ? 

Most piston-heads have cast-iron spring rings fitted 
in grooves in head, which spring out against the 
cylinder walls. 

Do they ever leak ? 

They frequently leak when worn where cut, if nothing 
has been provided to stop the leak. 

What is the result if they leak ? 

Loss of power and waste of force, as the live steam 
blows out the stack. 

Can they be made steam-tight without complication? 

They can. (See Fig. 12.) 


STEAM-CYLINDERS AND CONNECTION. 29 

What is the use of the cross-head, and what is at¬ 
tached to it ? 

It acts as a carrier for back end of piston-rod and 
also for front end of main rod. The piston-rod and 
main rod are attached to it. 

Between what does it slide ? 

Between the guide-bars. 

Which guide is more worn in the forward motion ? 

The top guide-bar. 

Why is this ? 

When on back stroke the crank-pin is below the 
centre-line of motion, and the push of the piston 
drives the cross-head against top guide ; on the forward 
stroke the crank-pin is above the centre-line of motion 
and the pull of piston draws cross-head against top 
guide-bar, the joint being at the wrist-pin in both cases, 
when running backward the wear is greater on bottom 
guide-bar. (See Fig. 14.) 

Explain the course of the steam in Fig. n by the 
arrows. 

As shown, the forward port is fully open, and steam 
is passing in the front end of the cylinder against piston- 
head. The steam from back end of cylinder is passing 
out port under valve, into exhaust-port. 

Breaking-down will next take our attention ; and as it 
is essential that the engineer or fireman should thor¬ 
oughly understand the construction and principle of his 
machine, we have endeavored to make it clear so far 
as we have gone. He should also understand how to 
disconnect his engine when broken down, and how to 
clear the road. 

There is one point the reader will do well to re- 


30 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

member, that whenever a breakdown occurs which 
requires the cylinder on the broken side to be run 
without steam in it, the piston-head must be without 
motion, or disconnected, and the steam-ports to be 
covered in all cases except in towing, as a dead engine. 

The writer will try and illustrate the method of dis¬ 
connecting, so as to make it plainer to the student; 
and he holds the theory that an illustration of the 
break and repair can be remembered for a longer time 
than if told in so many words. 

QUESTIONS ON BREAKDOWN AND DISCONNECTING. 

When a cylinder-head is knocked out by a broken 
piston-rod, what should be done ? 

If the piston-head went clear of cylinder without 
breaking anything but the head, the best plan is to 
place valve in the centre of seat and clamp valve-stem. 
If there were no clamp at command, tie valve-rod up 
to hand-railing with a rope. In all cases disconnect 
valve-rod from upper rocker-arm, but do not take down 
the main rod. Position of valve is illustrated by 

Fig- i 5 - 

What must be done if a valve-rod breaks? 

Do the same as in the breaking of a cylinder-head, ex¬ 
cept that in this case the main rod must be disconnected 
from the cross-head. This is shown in Fig. 15. 

Why must the main rod be disconnected in this 
case, and not in breaking out the head, the piston 
going out to clear ? 

Because in that case there was no piston in cylinder 
to cut, and in the other there is; so the main rod must 
be taken down to prevent cutting the cylinder. 


STEAM-CYLINDERS AND CONNECTION. 31 

If you were near a siding, would you disconnect the 
main rod on broken side? 

Not unless the distance were very great. It is better 
to clear the main line as soon as possible. 

In what position should a cross-head be blocked? 

In the back end of guides. (See Fig. 15.) 

Why should it be blocked in the back end of guides? 
Because when blocked in the front end, if the steam 



Valve Stem 
Clamp 



Fig. 15. 


should get in front of the piston-head, and blocking 
should slip or break, it would be likely to knock out 
backhead, bend the guide-bars and yoke, and also injure 
the packing. If blocked back, it would knock out 
front head only. 

Why would it not break out backhead ? 

Because the piston-head would strike the front head, 
and the force of the blow would be reduced before the 
cross-head would strike the backhead. This is the 
case where the main rod breaks. 












































32 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


When a valve-stem breaks, what must be done? 

Clamp valve-stem, having the valve covering the 
ports. Take down main rod, block cross-head, and 
disconnect valve-rod from rocker-arm, as in Fig. 15. 
This applies to broken valve-rod. 

How can a broken valve-yoke be found without tak¬ 
ing off steam-chest cover? 

Place the engine on a quarter on the side supposed 
to be broken, open cylinder-cocks, give the cylinder a 
little steam, and pull reverse-lever back and forth. If 



Broken Valve 


Fig. 16. 



Broken Valve or Bridge 
JB-ABoard between Valve and Seat 
O 

Fig. 17. 


steam comes out of cylinder-cock only, it would show 
that the break was on that side. 

Why should the engine be put on a quarter? 

In order to have a full travel of valve over seat. 

After finding broken yoke, how should the engine 
be disconnected ? 

In the same way as in the case of broken valve-rod, 
except that in this case the release-valve should be 
taken out. Cut a stick and put in release-valve* nut, 
with the stick against steam-valve so as to hold valve 
central over ports, as in illustration, Fig. 16. 


* Also called relief-valve. 















































STEAM-CYLINDERS AND CONNECTION. 33 

What should be done in the case of a broken valve 
or bridge? 

Put a board over the valve-seat, put valve on it, bolt 
steam-chest cover down on it. This is in an engine 

o 

where a balance-valve is not used, as in Fig. 17.* 

If both cylinder-heads broke out, would it be possible 
to run the engine ? 

Yes, by blocking up the front steam-ports, and run¬ 
ning with the back-ports. 



When a release-valve blows out, what must be done? 

Put a wooden plug in the hole, if thread is not 
stripped. 

If a piece broke out of steam-chest, how could steam 
be prevented from entering the steam-chest? 

By putting a blind-washer in steam-pipe joint. 

Could this be done very easily? 

It could not, on account of the heat from the fire ; 
and in most cases where the engine has run for any 
length of time the studs are corroded, and hard to get 
loosened. 

When a cross-head shoe is broken, what should be 
done ? 

* A block of wood can be substituted for the valve when balance- 
plate is used. 



























34 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

If not broken too badly, and especially the bottom 
one, the engine can be run. If the top one is broken, 
however, it must not be over half gone. When run¬ 
ning forward also in case a gib breaks out entirely, a 
board of the thickness of the gib should be put on the 
guide-bar. (See Fig. 19.) 

Remember that you should always block the valve 
in centre of the seat. Cover the ports. Do not shove 
valve ahead or back, leaving one port open. This is a 
bad practice. 


CHAPTER IV. 


LOCOMOTIVE FRAMES, DRIVING-BOXES, AND 

SPRING RIGGING. 

Locomotive frames, as used in American practice, 
are of the bar type. On most foreign roads they use 
the slab and compound frame. The bar frame seems 
best adapted to our locomotives. 

The frame is a very important part of an engine, as 
it must take all the thrust due to the push and pull of 
the piston, and the resistance in the weight of the train 
behind. It also keeps the driving-wheels in their 
respective places, carries the boiler, cylinder, and all 
the machinery connected with the boiler. 

This in turn is carried by the driving-axles, so it is 
plain that the locomotive frame must be well made. 

The construction of the bar type is as follows : In 
an eight-wheel or passenger engine, as shown in P'ig. 
20, it is composed of two parts—the back portion, which 
contains the pedestals or jaws for the driving-boxes, 
and the forward portion, which carries the cylinders 
and rocker-arms and tumbling-shaft. 

As will be seen in Fig. 20, the top rail of back part 
of frame is dropped behind the front driving-box. 
This is for the purpose of getting a deep fire-box or 
slope in the front end. In this form of frame the 
fire-box is above the frame, thus getting a wider fire- 

35 


36 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

box than could be done if the fire-box was between 
the frames. 

The pedestal-jaws or frame-legs are forged to the 
top and bottom rails, thus binding the two rails to¬ 
gether. In some engines they are forged only to the 
top rail, and the bottom rail is bolted to jaws. Fig. 20 
shows solid frame. 

The forward portion or bar has a T head and the 



Fig. 20. 

bar is between the two rails of the back part, which are 
drawn together, binding the forward part. 

The T head or bar is bolted to jaw, and the whole is 
called the splice. On the forward part of bar are two 
shoulders, between which the saddles are bolted. 

There is a key at this point to take up any move¬ 
ment of cylinder. At the extreme end comes the 
breast-beam, to which is bolted the pilot. 

Fig. 21 shows a consolidation engine for heavy 
freight service. As will be seen, there is no splice in 
this frame, and there are four pedestal-jaws. 

In this engine all but a small portion of the entire 
weight of the engine is carried on the driving-wheels. 
































LOCOMOTIVE FRAMES, DRIVING-BOXES, ETC. 3 7 

The forward end of the frame is brought together in 
order to clear the pony-wheel. 

On the bottom of pedestal jaws are bars or binders, 
which are bolted to the bottom of jaws, and are usually 
called pedestal-caps. These are for the purpose of 
making it possible to take out the driving-boxes, or 
dropping out wheels, which could not be done if they 
were solid, unless the end of axle and wheel were 
loose. They also serve to bind the jaws together. 



Fig. 21. 


The number of jaws and style of frame is governed 
mostly by the number of driving-wheels. 

In order to make an engine ride easily and reduce 
the shocks and concussion on the running gear, the 
engine is provided with springs which are called driving- 
springs and engine-truck springs. 

The driving-springs are placed over each driving-box 
and carried on a saddle which straddles the frame, rest¬ 
ing on the top of the driving-box in the most common 
form of construction, as in Fig. 21, which shows the 
construction very plainly. 

Fig. 20 shows a different method of placing the 
springs. In this form the spring rigging is underneath 
the frame. By referring to Fig. 20 you will see that 


























































38 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


the springs are supported by carriers whose upper ends 
have an eye in them, and a pin runs through the 
flanges of driving-boxes and the eye of carrier, thus 
making a support for the driving-spring. 

The driving-box takes the weight, as in other forms. 
In order to equalize the weight between the drivers, 
there are provided bars, which are called equalizing- 
bars. These are placed between the drivers, on the top 
of the frame, in the form using springs on top, as in 
Fig. 22. Fastened to the frame are fulcrum-posts. The 



bar has an eye in it into which the post fits. Passing 
through the post is a pin, forming the fulcrum or axis 
on which the bar rotates. 

The ends of the bar are attached to the sprin gs by a 
spring hanger. If equalizing-bars were not used, the 
weight would not be distributed evenly on the drivers, 
for an illustration, if we should place the frames down 
on the top of the boxes, and run over an uneven piece 
of track, the weight would be taken one time by one 




































LOCOMOTIVE FRAMES, DRIVING-BOXES , ETC. 39 

driving-box and then by the other. This is from the 
fact that the one in the hollow place would drop away 
from the frame and leave all the weight on the one 
on the highest part of the rail, and this action would 
take place also when the other wheel dropped into the 
hollow or low place. 

This happens when passing over switches; but in 
using the equalizing-bar, whose ends are fastened to 
the springs over each driving-box, and having an axis 
around which it can rotate, the weight being concen¬ 
trated at that point, either of the drivers can go up or 
down, but the weight will be carried by both driving- 
boxes, because the bar can adjust itself to the move¬ 
ment of the boxes on either side of the axis. 

In Fig. 20 the equalizing-bar is underneath the 
frame, for the purpose of getting the fire-box on top of 
the frame. 

In Fig. 21 you will see that three pairs of drivers are 
equalized together, but the front pair is connected to 
the pony-truck by equalizing-bar, thus equalizing front 
driver and truck. 

There are coil springs on the end of spring hangers. 
The forward equalizing-bar is bolted to the under side 
of the saddles or bed-casting. 

Driving-boxes are generally made with a shell of 
brass, but in most modern locomotives the driving-box 
is cast solid, of some good composition, such as phos¬ 
phor bronze. 

The advantage of a cast-steel box with a shell over 
a solid box is that the shell can be renewed without 
disposing of the whole box, as is done when a solid box 
wear out. 


40 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


Driving-boxes are set in the frames or pedestal-jaws, 
and between them and the jaws are two pieces of 
metal, front and back. That in the front is called the 
shoe, and it is perfectly straight. The one back is 
called the wedge, and is tapered; the jaw is also tapered. 
This is done for the purpose of taking up the wear due 
to the push and pull of the piston. The wedge must 



not be too tight or the frame cannot oscillate up and 
down ; or if the driving-box becomes a little warm, the 
wedge and frame will stick, which causes the engine to 
ride very hard on the driving-boxes. As will be seen 
by Fig. 23, the wedge has an arrangement at the 
bottom to adjust it, which is called a wedge-bolt. The 
one shown is the standard on the P. R. R. 

There is a hollow bolt having a head on the lower end, 
and the body threaded its entire length. The pedes¬ 
tal-cap or binder is also threaded. This hollow bolt 
screws into the cap and abuts against the bottom of 
the wedge. In the centre of this hollow bolt is the 
















































































LOCOMOTIVE FLAMES, DRIVING-BOXES, ETC. 41 


wedge-bolt proper, the upper end of which has a head 
which fits into the wedge. On the lower end are two 
nuts for jamming to hollow bolt. To set the wedge up 
you first unscrew the nuts on wedge-bolt proper, then 
screw the hollow bolt up ; this carries the wedge with 
it. When raised far enough, screw the nuts up on the 
wedge-bolt against the end of hollow bolt. This binds 
the wedge fast to the hollow bolt, using a jamb-nut on 
the hollow bolt to bind it to the pedestal-cap. 

To lower, do as in raising, except to draw the hollow 



bolt down, and screw up nuts against hollow nut, and 
that will draw the wedge down on the top of hollow 
bolt. 

To keep the driving-boxes thoroughly lubricated, 
there is an oil-cellar fastened between the flanges of 
the driving-box, which is hollow, and fits closely to the 
axle. This is filled full of waste suitable for packing 
cellars, and well oiled or sponged up. 

The tops of driving-boxes have oil cavities with oil- 
holes leading to journal. Sponging is put into the 
cavities in the top. The cellar catches the oil that 
passes around the journal and underneath it. The 


















42 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

sponging must bear against the under side of the jour¬ 
nal, or the box will become hot and give trouble. 
When the sponging becomes hard, due to being burned, 
it should be taken out and fresh sponging put in, as 
when hard it drops away from journal, and the capillary 
action is also stopped. 

Setting up wedges is something that should be un¬ 
derstood by all engineers. The proper position to place 
an engine is on a straight, level piece of track ; then 
place the crank pins on the side you are working at on 
the top quarter, in the forward stroke, put a chock under 
wheels, and give the cylinder a little steam. The idea 
of this is to take up all the lost motion between the 
driving-box and shoe, for in this position the piston 
pulls box to shoe, and the cylinder-head pushes frame 
against box, leaving the wedge free. The engineer 
must use his own judgment as to how far the wedge 
must go up. To use finer adjustment, you must slack 
up the keys on the rods, and key up after setting up 
wedges. (See Fig. 26). 

Breaking down any portion of spring rigging some¬ 
times presents a difficult problem, as all engines are 
supposed to carry jacks, but do not do so. Then the 
question of how to raise the weight is solved by using 
a wedge of wood or iron, as in Fig. 22, which shows a 
broken spring hanger which has let the frame down on 
the driver, and the end of equalizer down on the frame. 
The best thing to be done in this case is to put a 
wedge under the wheel, either back or front of the one 
with the broken hanger, and run this wheel up on 
wedge. This will raise the frame off the driver with 
the broken spring; then put on top of the box a 


LOCOMOTIVE FRAMES , DRIVING-BOXES , ETC. 43 


block or anything that can be put in between frame 
and box, such as a piece of fish-plate ; then run the 
wheel down off the wedge, and put a block undert he 
low end of equalizer. In order to do this, run the 
wheel that is blocked up on a wedge, and this will take 
all the weight off the bar; then take down all loose 
parts, and proceed. 

With the spring rigging underneath you do as in the 
former case ; but to raise equalizing-bar it is best to put 
a wedge or roller under the low end of equalizing-bar 


>Vutl of T£ston, 



Fig. 26. 


and move the engine back. If a front hanger, this will 
raise the bar, and then chain fast to frame. It is policy, 
when running a wheel up to raise frame, to put a block 
on top of that box, to take the strain off the springs, 
also to move frame more quickly; but leave it small 
enough to enable it to be taken out, when run down off 
wedge. 

When a spring, spring hanger, equalizing-bar, or 
spring saddle breaks, do as in Fig. 22 (broken hanger), 
removing all loose parts. When a tire breaks, the 
wheel containing the break should be run up on a 


































44 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


wedge as thick as the tire, then the oil-cellar should be 
taken out and a block of wood substituted, as in Fig. 
24. This will carry the weight, and make a bearing for 
the axle to revolve on. Never let the axle revolve 
on the oil-cellar, as this will cut the axle and ruin it. 
When an axle is broken off outside the driving-box 
this would not be absolutely necessary, for that axle 
is spoiled but block between pedestal-cap and cellar 
and top of box and frame. 

QUESTIONS. 

Upon what does the boiler and cylinder rest? 

The frame. 

What takes the pull and push of piston and resist¬ 
ance of train ? 

The frame. 

What names are applied to the different parts of the 
frame ? 

The top and bottom rail, pedestal-jaws, and splice. 

What is the use of the pedestal-jaws? 

To hold the drivers in position. 

What is the splice ? 

It is that point in an eight-wheel frame that the for¬ 
ward portion or bar is attached to, the back part of 
frame in front of front driver. 

What governs the number of jaws in a frame? 

The number of drivers to be used. 

For what is a pedestal-cap or binder used? 

To permit wheels and boxes to be dropped out or 
put in ; also to bind jaws together. 

Why are springs used ? 

To make engine ride easily; also to avoid the con- 


LOCOMOTIVE FRAMES, DRIVING-BOXES, ETC. 45 


cussion and jar, which would be hard on machinery 
and road-bed. 

How is the weight on driving-boxes equalized? 

By equalizing-bars attached to a frame and springs 
between driving-boxes, the weight suspended at the 
centre of bar or at the axis of rotation. 

How will it equalize the weight between drivers? 

If one driver goes up or down, the end of the equal¬ 
izing-bar will go up or down with the box, and the 
weight will still be divided between the two boxes. 

What is the result of using independent springs? 

When one driver goes up or down, due to uneven 
track or frogs, it will throw most of the weight of engine 
on the high wheel, thus reducing the adhesive power 
of the low wheel, and making the engine ride hard. 

What is a spring saddle ? 

A U-shaped iron spanning the frame and resting on 
the top of driving-box, upon which the springs rest. 

What is a spring hanger ? 

An iron link connecting the spring and equalizing- 
bar, or spring and frame. 

Of what materials are driving-boxes made ? 

Of cast steel and phosphor bronze. Cast-steel 
boxes have brass shells next to journals. 

What advantage has this over a solid box? 

The shell can be renewed without renewing the 
whole box. 

What are wedges and shoes used for between boxes 
and jaws? 

Shoes are used to prevent the wear of pedestal-jaws 
or frame-legs; wedges are used to take up the lost 
motion between boxes and pedestal-jaws. 


46 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

On what side is the wedge in most locomotives? 

On the back of the driving-box. 

How is the wedge set up or pulled down and fas¬ 
tened ? 

By a wedge-bolt, as in Fig. 24. 

What is an oil-cellar? 

A hollow shell held between the flanges of driving- 
boxes, which is filled with sponging and oil to lubricate 
driving-box and journal. 

What is the principal cause of driving-boxes getting 
hot ? 

The sponging dropping away from journals or get¬ 
ting hard. 

In what position should your engine be placed to set 
up wedges? 

On a straight, level piece of track, put crank-pin on 
top quarter in forward stroke, give a little steam in 
cylinder, and put a chock under wheels. 

Why would you do this ? 

To get all the lost motion in the wedge side of box. 

When a spring, spring hanger, or equalizing-bar or 
saddle breaks, what should be done ? 

Run wheel up on a wedge, back or front of wheel 
having a broken spring or hanger, and put block on top 
of that box, between box and frame, as in Fig. 22 ; run 
wheel down off wedge, and take down all loose parts. 
If equalizing-bar broke in centre, would put blocks on 
top of both driving-boxes, and proceed. 

When a tire breaks, what should be done? 

Wheel should be run up on a wedge the thickness 
of tire, the oil-cellar taken out, and a block put in as 
in Fig. 24. 


LOCOMOTIVE FRAMES, DRIVING-BOXES, ETC. 47 

Would you run without taking cellar out? 

No, except when the axle breaks off outside of box, 
and then it is not absolutely necessary. 

What is the difference between an engine-truck and 
a pony-truck? 

An engine-truck has four wheels, while a pony-truck 
has only two. It is used in consolidation and mogul 
engines. 

If an engine-truck wheel or axle breaks, what should 
be done ? 

If a forward wheel broke, collars should be set up 
close to boxes. Box and frame should be chained up 
to main frame, and a cross-piece put on back of truck 
frame between that and the main frame. Do the same 
with the back wheel. Proceed cautiously in all cases 
of this kind. 

What should be done when a back or front driving- 
wheel or axle breaks on an engine ? 

The back or front wheels should be blocked to clear 
rails, and rods disconnected. 

What is a blind wheel ? 

A wheel without a flange. 

Which are the blind wheels on a consolidation 
engine ? 

The two middle drivers. 

Why are these wheels made without flanges? 

So that the engine will go around curves of short 
radius. 

What is the blind wheel on a ten-wheel engine? 

On a ten-wheel engine it is mostly the forward driver ; 
in a six-wheel engine the blind wheel is the main driver 
or centre wheel. 


CHAPTER V. 


RODS AND CONNECTIONS. 

The main or connecting rod is the rod that con¬ 
nects the cross-head with the crank-pin, and transmits 
the power to the whole number of driving-wheels, and 
is therefore called the mam- rod. This is illustrated in 
Fig. 27. 

The main rod has brasses in each end, front and 
back. The front ends fits around the cross-head, or 
wrist-pin. The brass is in two pieces, and is set up by 
a key. Some rods are made solid, while others have 
straps. The P. R. R. standard for eight-wheel engines 
is as in Fig. 27. In driving this key ( B ) care must be 
taken that the set-screw (S) is loosened before starting 
key. 

The back end of main-rod is the end that encircles 
the crank-pin. As with the front end, the rod is made 
with or without a strap. Fig. 27 shows a rod with a 
forked en( 3 , and the brass is slipped in from the back, 
while a block fits in between forks, and a large bolt 
passes through the forks and block, thus holding 
brasses in their place. 

This is a convenient way of making rods, but there 
is this objection to it : If a strap or fork breaks, the 
whole rod is useless in that condition, and besides, it 
cannot be taken down on the forward centre. In other 

48 


RODS AND CONNECTIONS. 


49 


forms the rod has a strap bolted to the main portion 
of rod, and leaves what is called the stub end when 
the strap is taken off; and if the strap breaks, it may 
be renewed without rendering the rod unserviceable, 
and can be taken down in any position. 

Side-rods or parallel-rods are the rods connecting the 
driving-wheels together. Many efforts have been made 
to get a substitute for these rods, but nothing has been 
devised that will do better. 

Where only two driving-wheels are used there is 
only one section of rod on each side, as in Fig. 27. 



Brass 


Rods for an 8 Wheel Passenger Engine 

Fig. 27. 


This shows a fluted or I section-rod. This form is 
very desirable on account of its strength and resist¬ 
ance to centrifugal force. This rod has no keys or 
straps, but has bushings of brass in each end or eye of 
rod. This makes a very simple form of brass, but 
when worn badly it must be renewed as a whole, and 
cannot be reduced to fit the pin, as in brasses which 
are in two parts, with keys to adjust them to the pin. 

To keep the bushing from turning, a stud is screwed 
down through the eye of rod and bushing, in which is 
screwed the oil-cup. 

On freight engines using three, four, or five driving- 
wheels, as in Fig. 21, the side-rods are divided into sec¬ 
tions, as in Fig. 28, showing a set of rods for a consol- 











50 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 



-a 

o 

u 


CL) 

•a 



^ ^ ^ 


a5 

a 


O 

u. 

a3 

X) 

I 

O 

& 


T3 

O 

u 

i> 

13 


e- > 


<u 

o 

c 

13 

X) 

tli 

<u 

c 

3 

o 

U 




X, Steam-chest. K , Knuckle-joint. 

i7/, Rocker-arm. Main Driver without a Flange. 

E, Main-pin. S', S", S'", Brake-shoe and Clogs. 


























































































RODS AND CONNECTIONS. 


51 


idation engine. The main pin is on the third wheel 
from the front end. This set of rods is divided into 
three sections. The middle section is on pins 3 and 2. 
The straps on each end have an eye on their back 
ends. The other sections front and back, or 3 and 1, fit 
on their respective crank-pins. The ends of sections 
1 and 3 have their ends next to pins 3 and 2 forked. 
These ends span the ends of the straps of the middle 
section, which have an eye in them. A pin passes 
through the two, binding them together, and forming 
what is called a knuckle-joint. 

This joint is provided for unevenness of track, frogs, 
or going on a turntable. If this was not provided, 
and the rods solid, or if one wheel raised or lowered, it 
would break the rods. 

Six-wheel connected engines have only one knuckle- 
joint, using two sections of rods. The joint is back of 
main-pin on most engines. On rods using straps there 
are keys or wedge-shaped pieces of steel, which pass 
through the strap, bearing against the brass and strap 
or strap and stub end of rod. 

This is done in order to adjust the brasses to the 
wear by raising or lowering the keys. Most pin 
brasses have two keys, the one front and the other back ; 
but some engines have only a single key on the main- 
pin brasses, on main-rod and side-rod. When made 
this way the key moves the front brass up to pin, and 
must pull the whole rod in order to get the back brass 
up to pin. This causes the rod to be lengthened, un¬ 
less liners are put in between the brass and the back 
end of strap. In the back of main-rod brasses babbitt 
or other similar metal is placed in grooves, which pre- 


52 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

vents the brasses from heating so quickly as with¬ 
out it. 

When a pin gets so warm that it commences to throw 
the metal out, it begins to give trouble to the runner, 
and if judgment is not used the pin will get worse and 
cut. It will be found in most cases that there is some 
obstruction in the oil-cup which prevents the oil from 
getting down to pin, and when the metal starts matters 
become worse, as the metal will fill up oil-way in cup 
solid. 

Oil-cups are made with a regulator or needle in 



Fig. 28. 


them, which can be lowered or raised to regulate oil 
flowing to pin, and it frequently happens that dirt or 
waste gets around the point of needle and stops the 
oil. This will cause heated bearings. 

Cups should be kept clean ; and in order to make 
the cup feed regularly, an engineer should take the 
cup off, fill it with oil, and set regulator by the drop, 
which he can see issuing from the cup if he holds it 
up to view. 

Another cause of the rod-brasses getting warm is 
too tight keying, which binds the brasses to pin, and 
causes much friction. In this case keys should be 
slacked up, according to judgment. Again, the brasses 




























RODS AND CONNECTIONS. 


53 


will not fit the strap correctly, or the key will be driven 
down too hard, springing the crown of brass. 

Every engineer should understand how to key up an 
engine, as it is one of the important parts of an exami¬ 
nation for promotion by a travelling engineer or master 
mechanic. 

When keying up the side-rod always place the crank- 
pins on the centre, either forward or back. By so 
doing the length of rod will not be changed, as the pins 
are in the centre-line of motion through wheels and 
cylinder, and this is also the extreme point of travel of 
pin through the centre-line of motion. 

Never key rods up with the pins on top or bottom 
quarter, for the reason that then the rods can be 
lengthened or shortened, as in Fig. 29; which will be 



On the C. Quarter{Drawings Exaggerated ) 

A to A the Bod has been Shortened. 

A. “ “ Lengthened. 

Fig. 29. 

plain to all, as the pins are above the centre-line of mo¬ 
tion, and form a lever with the axis of motion at the 
centre of the wheel. The pins can be drawn to or 
spread without moving the engine in a horizontal 
direction. Driving down the keys A and B would 
















54 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

shorten rods, while driving down C and B would 
lengthen them. We see, then, that in either case when 
the pins come to the centre they would be either too 
long or too short, which would cause them to buckle 
or break if their length was changed greatly by keying. 

The question with which brass to begin depends 
on the number of keys to a brass and the rods. On a 
six-wheel connected engine using a single key in front 
of pin it is policy to drive that key first, the others 
being slacked off, as this key must push brass up to 
pin and pull back brass to pin by moving the whole 
rod. 

When keying up the front end of the main-rod it is 
a general rule to put crank-pin on either quarter, which 
brings the brass on the large part of pin, as the wear 
of wrist-pin is oblong, due to the push and pull, the 
pin remaining stationary, which causes the pin to be 
larger at top and bottom. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the main-rod on a locomotive ? 

The rod connecting the cross-head with the crank- 
pin. 

What are the side or parallel rods for? 

To connect the drivers. 

Are they solid rods throughout ? 

No; it depends on the class of engine, as those 
using but four driving-wheels have only a single rod. 
Six-wheel connected and consolidated engines have 
their side-rods divided into sections. 

What is a knuckle-joint, and why is it provided? 


RODS AND CONNECTIONS. 


55 


A knuckle-joint is the point at which the sections 
are joined together, as in Fig. 28. This is provided so 
as to allow for variation in the height of the driving- 
wheels in passing over rough track, frogs, or turn¬ 
tables. 

If there was no knuckle-joint, what would happen on 
rough or uneven track ? 

It would bend or break rods. 

How are most brasses held on rods? 

By straps which are bolted on the end of rods, the 
brasses fitting in the straps. 

Are there any other forms ? 

Yes ; a solid bushing fitted into the end of rods. 

What advantage has the divided brass over a solid 
bushing ? 

The divided brass can be reduced to fit pin as it 
wears. The solid bushing must be renewed when 
worn. 

How are the brasses held to pins? 

By keys which are tapered or wedge shape, which 
take up the space between strap and bars when driven 
down. 

How many keys are used to one set of brasses ? 

Generally two, one on each side of brass, although 
some use only one, especially on the back end of main- 
rod. 

Are there many main-rods having the back end 
without straps ? 

Yes; strap being solid with rod, using a block and 
bolt to hold brass in. This is called forked or spade 
handle rod. 

Can this rod be taken down in all positions? 


56 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


No; it cannot be taken off pin on the forward 
centre. 

What causes the pins to become hot? 

It is mostly caused by not getting any oil to the 
pins, due to the oil-way becoming stopped up by dirt 
or waste, regulator or needle working down, brasses 
keyed up too tight or out of line, also metal thrown 
out filling oil-way up, and for the want of oil in cup. 

What should be done when pin becomes warm? 

Oil-cup should be examined for any of the above 
defects, and if the pin is very warm would cool it off. 
Raise regulator if the cup was full of oil, to let it feed 
more freely. If oil feeds freely and pin still runs warm, 
would slack up on keys, using judgment in doing so. 

Is there any particular position in which to place 
crank-pins when keying up side-rods? 

Yes; the pins should be placed on either forward or 
back centre. 

Why is this done ? 

So that the pins will be in the centre-line of motion 
through driving-wheel, or at the extreme point of 
travel of pins through the centre-line of motion. 

If placed on any other point, what would be the re¬ 
sult of hard keying? 

The rod could be made shorter or longer. 

What would be the result if keyed in that way when 
pin came on the centre? 

It would bend or break the rods; or if not keyed 
that much, would cause pins to run warm. 

In what position is the main-rod usually placed ? 

Mostly on the top quarter, so as to bring the wrist- 
pin brass on the largest part of pin. 


RODS AND CONNECTIONS. 


57 


What would be the shape of a wrist-pin much worn ? 

Oblong ; as the pin does not revolve, and the wear 
is front and back, due to the push and pull of piston- 
head. 

Is there any particular pin to key in keying side- 
rods ? 

That depends on the kind of rods .and the number 
of keys to a brass. 


CHAPTER VI. 


BREAKING OF RODS. 

When an engine breaks a side-rod, strap, or pin, the 
opposite rod must be taken down ; also on an engine 
having four driving-wheels ; and it should never be 
started unless this is done, as it is liable to break the 
good rod or pin. If the engine should slip when on 
the centre, it will do this, and it is liable to go either 
above or below the centre-line of motion, or in the 
opposite direction to that of the main-pin. 

The reason for this is that there is nothing to guide 
or pull the pin in the proper direction, as when two 
rods are connected to their respective pins. This rule 
applies to all classes of engines, but it is not necessary 
to take all the side-rods down on all engines, as will be 
explained. 

It has been argued that one side-rod could be run 
without any danger, as the main-pin would pull the 
back-pin around in the right direction, if it went over 
the centre. This is all a mistake, as will be seen by 
Fig. 30, which shows the engine in the forward-motion 
back-stroke. The back-pin has passed above the cen¬ 
tre, due to the backward push of the piston, and having 
no side-rod on the other side to guide, it was free 
to go either way if the driving-wheels slipped. Some 
think that with the engine going forward, with the 

58 



BREAKING OF RODS. 59 

pins in this position, the pin would be pulled down 
below the centre-line of motion ; but this cannot occur: 
as the main pin is travelling backward, it is pushing the 
other pin away from the centre in the direction of the 
arrow, and under no circumstances can that pin [A) 
come below the centre, unless it breaks or buckles the 
rod. Then, due to the forward motion of the engine, 
the wheel would reverse itself. So the reader will 

Back Pin above the 



Showing the action of an Engine which is run with only one Side Bod, 
The back Pin has passed above the Centre. 

Fig. 30. 


readily see why side-rods should come down when one 
is broken ; as on the consolidation engines, where the 
rods are divided into sections, if a back or a forward 
section breaks it is only necessary to take down the 
opposite section, but if a middle section breaks, all 
the side-rods on both sides must come down, for the 
reason that when a middle section breaks, all the sup¬ 
port for the other sections is gone, the knuckle-joint 
being on each end of the middle section. This must 
be done in case a pin holding or a middle section, a 
strap, or bolts breaks. 

On six-wheel connected engines the side-rod is in 










6o LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


two sections, the forward section back end having the 
knuckle-pin. 

If a back section breaks, the opposite section must 
come down. If a forward section breaks, all the side 
rods must be taken down. When the main-rod breaks, 
the engine must be disconnected, as when a valve-rod 
breaks. If both rods break, it is not necessary to take 
side-rods down for towing. 

Taking down side-rods reduces the power of the 
engine to pull a train, in proportion to th£ number of 
drivers disconnected, as the tractive force becomes in 
excess of the adhesive force or power, which is due to 
the weight on drivers, and this causes an engine to 
slip when under steam if the throttle is opened wide. 

Broken driving-axles often occur, and the wheel is 
thrown off, usually breaking side-rods and main rod or 
pins. 

If a main driver breaks off outside of box, the engine 
should be brought in with the good side, taking down 
all side-rods. The box on broken side should be 
blocked up, putting a block between the top of box 
and top of frame, and also between the bottom of box 
and pedestal-cap ; this prevents the axle from binding, 
and keeps the box in position. 

QUESTIONS. 

If a side-rod breaks, what must be done before start¬ 
ing engine ? 

The side-rod on the other side must be taken down. 

Why must this be done ? 

So that the good rod may not be broken. 


BREAKING OF RODS. 


6 1 


Why would the good rod be broken if left up ? 

If the engine stopped at either centre, the back 
crank-pin would be liable to go either above or below 
the centre-line of motion, there being no rod on the 
other side to pull it over the centre. If it went above 
the centre, as in Fig. 30, it would break the rod or pin. 

If the pin passed above the centre, could the main 
pin pull it back again ? 

No, that would be impossible without breaking 
either rod or pin. 

When a back or forward section breaks on a consoli¬ 
dation engine, must all the side-rods come down? 

No, only the front or back section, on the other side. 

When the middle section breaks, what must be 
done? 

All the side-rods must come down on both sides ; 
the same must be done if a pin, strap, or bolt breaks 
on a middle section. 

Why must all come down ? 

On account of the knuckle-joints being on each end 
of the middle section, thus leaving no support for the 
front and back sections. 

When a main pin breaks on a six-wheel connected 
engine, what must be done? 

All the side-rods must be taken down on both sides, 
and when only a back section, the opposite section is 
taken down. 

What effect does disconnecting side-rods have on an 
engine ? 

It reduces the power of the engine to haul a train, in 
proportion to the weight on each driver disconnected. 

How does the engine act when the throttle is open? 


62 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


The engine will slip, because the tractive force is in 
excess of the adhesive power. 

Can an engine be run when an axle breaks outside 
of box? 

It can be run. 

When an axle breaks in the centre, what should be 
done ? 

The wheels should be blocked up to clear track, and 
disconnected. 


CHAPTER VII. 


VALVE-MOTION. 

This is a portion of a locomotive which often re¬ 
mains a mystery to many. The writer will endeavor 
to make it as plain to the reader as possible. Starting 
with the valve, which (as has been shown in a previous 
chapter) is a hollow shell in the form of the letter D, 
this valve slides over the steam-ports, controlling the 
inlet and outlet of steam ; also the exhaust. 

Lap is the amount that the valve extends over the 
edge of the steam-ports, when the valve is in the centre 
of its travel, as in Fig. 31. The purpose of lap on a 
valve is to get an increased amount of expansion from 
the volume of steam used in the cylinders. Increase 
of lap is increase of expansion, to a certain extent, as 
the valve will release the steam earlier in the stroke if 
the exhaust side of valve is line on line with steam- 
ports. 

Inside lap is the amount that the exhaust side of 
valve overlaps the port, as in Fig. 32, which causes the 
valve to exhaust the steam later in the stroke; but 
then it will close the valve earlier to the exhaust, and 
cause greater compression. 

Inside clearance is the amount that the port is open 
on the exhaust side of valve, when in the centre of 
its travel, as in Fig. 31. In this the valve will exhaust 


64 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


the steam earlier in the stroke of the piston, but will 
close the exhaust later, thus reducing the compression. 
With a valve without lap, the steam would follow full 
stroke without expansion, which would be wasteful. 

Lead of a steam-valve is the amount the valve has 
opened port when the crank-pin is on either centre. 
The idea of having lead is to provide a cushion and 
help start the engine off centre. There is a great dif¬ 
ference in opinion as to how much lead an engine 
should have, but generally freight engines are given 



one eighth lead, full stroke, and passenger engines one 
sixteenth. 

Valve-motion is composed of several parts, as Fig. 
33 shows. We will start with the eccentrics which 
are fastened onto the main drivers. As a rule, the 
eccentric encircles the main shaft, and is the only sub¬ 
stitute for a crank. There are four on an engine 
using the Stephenson or link motion, two for a link— 
the forward-motion eccentric, which controls the mo¬ 
tion of the valve when running forward ; the backward 
eccentric, which controls the motion of the valve when 
running backward. 

Eccentric sheaves or wheels are made in two parts, 
and bolted together by studs, as in Fig. 33. The 















VALVE-MOTION. 


65 


method of fastening to the axle is by a key and set¬ 
screws. The travel of the valve is controlled by the 
travel of the centre of eccentric in a horizontal line 
each side of the centre of axle. Thus if we had a valve 
whose travel was four inches we would place the centre 
of the eccentric two inches above the centre of axle 01- 
horizontal line AB in Fig. 34; then when the axle re¬ 
volved, the centre of eccentric would travel just four 



inches in a horizontal line, which would be the travel 
of valve. 

There is, however, another point with which we must 
deal, and that is the lap and lead of valve : this, then, 
will cause the centre of eccentric to be moved beyond 
the vertical line CD , in Fig. 34, just the amount of lap 
and lead of valve, which in this case may be thirteen 
sixteenths of an inch,—three-fourths lap plus one-six¬ 
teenth lead,—which is called the angular advance of 

















66 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

the eccentric center. If this were not done the piston- 
head would leave the end of the cylinder before the 
valve would open, as the valve would have to travel the 
length of lap and before it would open the port of the 
cylinder; in that case the piston-head would lead the 
valve. 

It is often asked if reducing the diameter of the 
eccentric would diminish the travel of valve. The 
answer is: No, not so long as you do not change the 
position of eccentric centre to that of the axle, but it 
would require an eccentric-strap of smaller dimension. 
Eccentric-straps are made in two pieces, as in Fig. 33, 
and are bolted together by strap-bolts TV and N. In 
order to keep the strap on the eccentric, the straps 
are made hollow, with a flange in each side, which fits 
the eccentric. 

Fastened to the eccentric-strap is the eccentric-rod, 
which connects the strap with the link. This rod is 
fastened into the strap by three bolts. The middle 
hole is usually made oblong, so as to allow the rod to 
be shifted when setting the valves. 

The forward end of the eccentric-rod is forked, 
spanning the link, as in Fig. 33. This end of the rod 
is fastened to link by the link-pin, which runs through 
the eye in link and fork of rod. This construction is 
the same for the forward and backward motions. 

As usually constructed, the forward eccentric is next 
the driving-box, and the backward inside. In all in¬ 
direct motion using a rock-shaft, the forward eccentric- 
rod is connected to the top of the link. The link is 
simple in its construction, but is an important feature 


VALVE-MOTION. 


67 


in valve-motion, as by its use the motion is reversible, 
or the engine can be run either forward or backward. 

As generally made, it is forged solid ; but some 
builders make the two sides separately, and use a 
block top and bottom, putting a bolt through them, 
binding it together as a link. 

The link is not straight, but is curved, having a 
given radius. This radius is measured from the centre 
of the axle to the centre of link, as in Fig. 33. 

The reason for making a link with a radius is on 


Forward 

Eccentric 


Eccentric 


Engine in forward Motion 
Crank Pin on forward Centre 
Position of Valve 

'Lead of . 

Valve .^ic Pin /> 

' " cA' 


Crank Pin on Bottom 
Quarter. Valve commenc¬ 
ing to close.Port 



Exhaust / t 
p Front Port f 
taking Steam \ 


Axle\ 



Crank Pin 

The distance the Centres of the Eccentrics 
are.ahead of the Centre of Axle 

(Showing the Action of ValveMotion) 

Fig. 34. Fig. 35. 


account of the link being raised and lowered each side 
of the centre-line of motion, and if straight it would 
throw the valve out in its travel. 

On the back of the link is a cross-piece called the 
saddle, and spanning the link on this saddle is a pin, 
which is called the saddle-pin. This is the axis on 
which the link rotates or swings. 

From this saddle-pin to the lifting-arm is the link- 
lifter or suspension link, which is attached to lifting- 
arm, which in turn is welded to tumbling-shaft, the 











68 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


tumbling-shaft having two arms, lifting and reversing. 
Attached to the reverse-arm is the reach-rod. This 
is connected to the reverse-lever, as in the cab. With¬ 
in the link-slot is a block called the link-block. This 
link-block has flanges on it to keep it in the link. Fit¬ 
ting in this block is the lower rocker-arm pin. The 
rocker-shaft has two arms, the upper and lower. To 
the upper arm is attached the valve-rod, and the lower 
arm as just stated is connected to link-block. 

Remember that in the forward motion the valve is 
controlled by the forward-motion eccentric, and the 
centre of link is below the centre-line of motion, and 
we will try to explain the operation of motion and the 
reason why raising and lowering the link reverses the 
motion. By looking at Fig. 34 we see that the crank- 
pin is on the forward centre, and the eccentrics are 
ahead of the centre of the axle an equal distance, 
which is the lap and lead of valve. The link is all the 
way down, or in full forward motion. This being an 
indirect motion, it must be remembered that the upper 
rocker-arm travels directly opposite to that of the 
lower arm, or centre of the eccentric. A good rule for 
remembering the difference between a direct and in¬ 
direct motion is, that in an indirect motion the centre 
of the eccentric follows the crank-pin, and in a direct 
the crank-pin follows the eccentric centre. 

By referring to Fig. 35 you wall see that if the crank- 
pin was to travel from the forward centre downward to 
the bottom quarter, or near that point, the centre of 
eccentric would travel from 1 to 2, and the valve would 
travel back and uncover port full, the valve having 
travelled back while the eccentric centre went ahead. 


VAL VE-MO TIOiV. 


69 


If the crank-pin continues to travel to the back centre, 
the valve would start forward and close the port, and 
when the crank-pin is on the back centre the valve will 
be on the lead, on the back-port, as in Fig. 36. The 
steam begins to exhaust from the front port as soon as 
the valve passes the centre of travel when line on line, 
and no inside lap; and so on, the full revolution of the 
driver. 

The valve uncovers and covers the port, and comes 



Fig. 37. 


on the lead when the crank-pin passes from one centre 
to another, at the same time exhausting the steam out 
of cylinder. 

We will now explain why raising and lowering the 
link short-strokes the valve, and also reverses the 
motion of the valve, in as simple a way as possible. 
By referring to Fig. 37, which is an outline of link, 
let us consider the link as a lever, with its fulcrum at 5 
or the saddle-pin. Then if the link should be moved 




























70 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


forward from the vertical line A to what would be full 
forward travel of link, the dot B would move from A 
to F\ but with the same movement of link the dot C, 
midway between the dot B and fulcrum S, would move 
only half as far as B. Thus it is with the link-motion 
if the link is all the way down in the forward motion. 
The link-block will be in top of link-slot, and is con¬ 
trolled wholly by the forward-motion eccentric ; now 
if the link is raised the block will be further down in 
link, or at dot C in Fig. 37, and would travel only half 
as far as when top of link-slot. 

When in this or any other point between full stroke 
or top of link-slot and centre of link, the valve is being 
short-stroked, and is partly controlled in its movements, 
by both eccentrics. 

The action is the same for backward motion. When 
the link-block is in the bottom of link-slot the engine 
is in the backward-motion full stroke and the valve is 
controlled by the backward motion eccentric ; and when 
the link is lowered toward the centre, the valve is be¬ 
ing short-stroked, the same as in the forward motion. 

Raising or lowering the links also will reverse the 
motion of valves and engine. The position of the 
centre of the eccentrics, in connection with the link, 
controls this action. 

By Fig. 35 it will be seen that the link is in full 
forward travel and the port is full open. The centre 
of the eccentrics is at 2 and 3, while the crank pin is 
not quite at the bottom quarter. 

The reason for this is that the centres of the eccen¬ 
trics are not at right angles with the crank-pin, but are 
moved forward the length of the lap and lead. 


VALVE-MOTION. 


71 


Drawing the vertical line ON in Fig. 38, the link- 
block centre is at 7, or forward of the vertical line ON, 
while the bottom of link is back of the vertical line 
ON 

To reverse the motion, the links are raised, and the 
link-block will be in the lower part of link-slot. It must 
not be forgotten, that in the act of raising the link it 
changes its position very slightly, but slides up over 


N 

upper. JRocker\ 
Armhc^\^ j 


Link dowii^ 
Engine in 
forward Motion 


Link.Fin hole, 



'Rock Shaft 
Lower Rocker Amu 


Link.Block 


Jtock Shaft - 



Eirik Raised up 
Engine in Back Gear 
Motion Reversed 


ILink Block in Bottom 
of Link 


Dia. Showing how Raising or Lowering 
1 the Link Reverses the Motion ' 


Fig. 38. 


Fig. 39. 


the link-block, the slot acting as a guide to the link- 
block, which in turn moves the rocker-shaft and valve. 
When the link is raised from the full forward motion 
to the backward motion, the block will then be in 
the bottom of link-slot, having moved from the line 
T in forward motion to the line P back of the vertical 
line ON in Fig. 39, and has moved the valve across 
the seat and uncovered the back-port, reversing the 
motion of the engine. 









7 2 LOCOMO TJ VE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

Remember, too, that the link-block must follow the 
slot in link, and the rocker-arm must move whichever 
way that the link is inclined, either side of the vertical 
line NO. 

The question is often asked : “ Does the lead of 
opening increase as the links are raised up?” I 
answer that it does increase, for the reason that it is due 
to the position of the centre of the eccentric. If the 
straps of the eccentric-rods encircled the axle, their 
centres in line with the centre of the axle, this would 
not occur; but as they move around the centre of the 
eccentrics, whose centres are out of line with the cen¬ 
tre of the axle, also as the radius of the link is taken 
from the centre of the axle, then, if the crank-pin is on 
the forward centre and the link raised, the centre of 
the eccentric will shove the links ahead, which increases 
the lead-opening of the valve. As this action takes 
place on either centre, or as the links are raised up 
while running, the shorter the travel of valve, the 
greater the lead. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is meant by the lap of valve ? 

The amount that the valve extends over the edge of 
steam-port when the valve is in the centre of travel. 

Why does a valve have lap? 

In order to get an increased amount of expansion in 
the steam-cylinder. 

How does a valve without lap act? 

Cylinders would take steam throughout the whole 
stroke, which is not economical when not using a cut¬ 
off. 


VALVE-MOTION . 


73 


What is meant by the lead of a valve? 

Lead is the amount that the port is open when the 
engine is on either centre. 

Why is lead given to a valve ? 

To form a cushion for the piston-head ; and at the 
same time, if the compression is in excess of the press¬ 
ure in the chest, it will allow it to equalize. 

Why is a cushion required in a cylinder? 

To prevent the piston-head from striking the cylin¬ 
der-head, also to retard the motion of the reciprocating 
parts. 

What is meant by the inside lap of valve? 

It is the amount that the valve extends over the 
edge port on the exhaust side of valve, as in Fig. 32, 
which shows three-sixteenths lap on inside. 

Why is a valve given inside lap ? 

In order to increase the expansion, by preventing 
the steam from exhausting as soon as it would if there 
were no inside lap ; but it produces an earlier cut-off 
of the exhaust. 

What is the inside clearance of a valve? 

It is the amount that the port is open on the exhaust 
side when the valve is in the centre of its travel. 

Why is it used in a valve ? 

To produce a later closing of the valve to the ex¬ 
haust, by reducing the back pressure or compression, 
but at the same time it reduces the amount of expan¬ 
sion by an earlier exhaust-opening. (See Fig. 31.) 

What is the most common form of valve-gear which 
is used on the American locomotive? 

The link-motion. The names of the parts are shown 
in Fig. 33. 


74 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

What governs the travel of the valve? 

The throw of the eccentric or the distance the centre 
of eccentric travels in a horizontal line, providing that 
the rocker-arms are of equal length. 

What is the position of the eccentric centres when 
the engine is on the forward centre? 

The centres are in front of the centre of axles, or 
line CD , as in Fig. 34. 

What distance are they ahead of the line CD ? 

The length of the lap and lead of valve. 

Why must they be in advance of the line CD ? 

If they should be at right angles with the crank-pin, 
the piston would leave the end of cylinder before the 
valve opened the steam-port. This is called the angu¬ 
lar advance of the centre of the eccentric, and is equal 
to the lap and lead of valve. 

In how many parts are the eccentrics? 

They are made in two parts, so that they can be put 
on an axle. 

How are they joined together, and fastened on an 
axle ? 

The parts are fastened together by studs, as in Fig. 
33. and then fastened to the axle by set-screws .SA in 
Fig. 33. A key is also provided. 

On what axle are the eccentrics usually attached ? 

Mostly on the main driving-axle. 

What is an eccentric-strap ? 

An eccentric-strap encircles the eccentric, and has 
the back end of eccentric-rod attached to it. 

How are the parts of the strap fastened together? 

By strap-bolts, as in Fig. 33. 


VALVE-MOTION . 75 

In a locomotive valve-motion, how many eccentrics 
are there ? 

Four—a forward and a back-up eccentric for each 
valve. 

To what part of the link is the forward-motion eccen¬ 
tric-rod generally attached? 

To the top part of the link; the end of the rod is 
forked, spanning the link. 

What is the use of the link in the valve-motion? 

By using the link the motion of the engine can be 
reversed, and the valve can be short-stroked. 

What is the radius of the link, and why is the link 
curved ? 

The radius is the distance from the centre of the 
axle to the centre of the link or link arc. The link is 
curved on account of being raised and lowered, rotat¬ 
ing around a centre with the curve in the link. The 
moving of the link up or down does not make the 
travel unequal, as it would if it was not curved. 

What is the link-block ? 

The link-block fits in the slot of link, and is attached 
to the lower rocker-arm pin. 

What are the saddle and saddle-pin ? 

The saddle is a plate spanning the link, to which the 
saddle-pin is fastened, the saddle-pin forming an axis 
for the link. To the saddle-pin is attached the link- 
hanger or suspension-link. 

What is the use of the tumbling-shaft? 

A tumbling-shaft * runs across the frame, carrying the 
lifting-arms, and also the reverse-arm, to which the 


* Also called lifting-shaft. 



;6 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


reach-rod is attached. To the lifting-arms is attached to 
the link-hangers. 

What is provided to counteract the weight of the 
links, eccentric-rods, and tumbling-shaft? 

An equalizing-spring, which takes the weight and 
makes the links easy to raise and lower. 

Are the rocker-arms used in all valve-motions using 
a link ? 

Only in indirect motion. 

Are they always of the same length ? 

They are of different lengths when the travel of the 
valve is greater than the throw of the eccentric. 

Should the steam-ports be covered when the engine 
is on either centre, with a valve having lead ? 

No; the valve will be wider open when in the out 
notch than when full throw, even when on the centre. 

Why does this increase of lead occur? 

On account of the position of the centres of the 
eccentrics and the movement of the link. 

Why does the raising or dropping the link reverse 
the motion ? 

The motion is reversed by the position of the link, 
or in whatever position the links are. This position is 
governed by the centres of the eccentrics, and as the 
link is raised or lowered the link-block must follow 
the slot of the link, which acts as a guide to the block. 
(See Figs. 38 and 39.) 

BREAKING DOWN OF THE VALVE-MOTION. 

When an eccentric-rod breaks, what must be done 
in the way of disconnecting? 

Both eccentric rods and straps must be taken down. 


VA L VE-MO TION. J 7 

Cover port and disconnect as for a broken valve-rod. 
(See Fig. 15.) 

If the forward-motion eccentric was broken, could 
the engine be run without taking down both rods ? 

Yes, by disconnecting the link-hanger, and letting 
the link carry on top of the link-block. 

If the eccentric became loose on the axle and shifted, 
what could be done to fasten it in place, the key and 
sets-crews of that eccentric being lost ? 

Take the two set-screws from the other eccentrics 
and fasten it. There are eight set-screws on the shaft. 

Is it possible to break a backward-motion strap, and 
not take down the eccentric-rods ? 

This can be done by fastening the back end of rod fast 
to the forward motion. 

Could the engine be reversed on that side when the 
back-up rod is fast to forward-motion rod ? 

No, it should be in the forward motion on that side, 
because there is only one eccentric that controls the 
motion, that being the forward eccentric. 

Would an engine hold if reversed in that condition ? 

No, as it would not have any braking-power. 

When an eccentric slips or is moved away from the 
proper position, there being no key-way for a guide, 
how would it be possible to set the eccentric so as to 
bring the engine in on the road? 

The proper way to do this is to place the engine on 
the forward centre, and set the slipped eccentric by 
the good one. If it is the back-up eccentric that has 
slipped, put the reverse-lever in full forward notch, and 
make a mark on the valve-stem, close to the stuffing- 
box. After this is done, put the reverse-lever in full 


78 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


back notch, and move the loose or slipped eccentric 
around until the mark on valve-stem comes back to 
stuffing-box; then fasten eccentric, and it will be in 
proper position. This applies as well to the forward 
eccentric. If slipped, set it by the good one or back¬ 
up eccentric. 

Why is it possible to set one by the other? 

Because when on either the forward or back centre 
the eccentric centres are the same distance ahead of 
the centre of axle, as in Fig. 34. 

Are there any other ways of setting a slipped eccen¬ 
tric ? 

There are other ways, but the one referred to is the 
best. It can be done by using the cylinder-cocks as a 
guide. If engine is on the forward centre, move the 
eccentric until there is but little steam escaping from 
the front cylinder-cock. This will place the eccentric 
nearly right. 

When a link-hanger, tumbling-shaft, lifting-arm, or 
reach-rod breaks, what should be done? 

When link hanger, saddle-pin, reach-rod, or tumbling- 
shaft breaks, it would leave the links dropped down 
on top of the link-block, and the best thing to do is to 
fit blocks in the links, as in Fig. 40. When a link- 
hanger or saddle-pin breaks, blocks should be put in 
that link only ; if running in the forward motion, the 
reverse-lever should be put in the position that the 
engine will be run, and then measure the distance from 
the top of link to the link-block, on the good side; that 
will the length of block to be put on top of link-block 
on the broken side. This will be a short block. When 
running in the backward motion, the link-block will be 


VA L VE-MO T/OA r . 


79 


in the bottom of the link, as in Fig. 41, and then it will 
require a long block on top of the link-block. A hole 
should be bored through it to fasten it to link. This 
rule is applicable to several breakdowns. 

If running a fast passenger train, would it be policy 
to stop and block other lines by doing as directed in 
the former rule for the breaking of saddle-pin or link- 
hanger ? 

No; would leave link carry on link-block, putting 


Link in back Gear 



some waste between block and top of link, and pro¬ 
ceed. 

When a link-block pin or lower rocker-pin breaks off, 
what should be done ? 

Would get the block, if possible; disconnect the 
valve-rod from the upper rocker-arm cover ports and 
disconnect main-rod, push the lower rocker ahead to 
clear the link, and fasten; then proceed with train. 
This applies the same when a lower rocker-arm is 
broken, 























80 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


How can a valve be put in the centre of seat, to 
cover ports ? 

By the reverse-lever. If the crank-pin is off the 
centre, by putting the reverse-lever in centre notch, or 
by opening the cylinder-cock and moving valve until 
the steam disappears, then move valve one half an inch 
or more, and the valve will have ports covered. 

Why not shove them all ahead or back, and leave 
one port open ? 

The valve would drop from the seat to the receiving- 
port, which would cause the valve to be cocked up on 
seat, and the steam would blow out the exhaust-port, 
and one port should not be open to cylinder. 


CHAPTER VIII. 


VALVE-SETTING. 

Locomotive-engineers, as a rule, do not set 
valves, but it is nevertheless a subject that should be 
understood. 

Valve-setting is usually done in the shop, by a per¬ 
son who has had experience in that class of work. 

The first thing to be done when setting valves is to 
get the crank-pin in the dead-centre, and the best way 
to do this is shown in Fig. 42. First put the crank-pin 
below the centre (as in dotted line) so that the cross¬ 
head will be near the end of its travel in the guides. 
Make a mark on the guide at the end of the cross-head 
shoe, as in A. At the same time take a tram and scratch 
an arc of a circle on the centre of the tire EE in figure; 
then put a punch-mark in wheel-cover or any conven¬ 
ient point, put a tram point in that punch-mark in 
cover with the other end of tram, and scratch a line 
across the arc on wheel, as in B. Now with the line 
on guide-bar and the line at B move the driving.wheel 
around in the direction of the arrow in figure until the 
cross-head shoe comes back to the mark on guide-bar: 
then with the tram scratch another line across the arc 
on tire, as at C, the point of tram being in the punch- 

81 


82 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


mark of wheel-cover, as in the first case. Next, find a 
point on arc EE half-way between the punch-marks B 
and C , which is N. Now move the driving-wheel back 
until the pomt of tram comes in the punch-mark S, and 
the mark on wheel-cover. The crank-pin will then be 
on the centre, and the end of cross-head be at the line 
N. This method will do for either centre; only the 
marks on wheel will be on different parts of the tire. 

After the crank-pin is on the centre the valve-set¬ 
ting begins. The eccentrics are generally fastened on 

Tram 


r~ 7N 



Fig. 42. 


in their proper positions by a key. The links being 
all the way down, the next point is to find the proper 
length of the eccentric-rods. 

The valve in steam-chest is given the proper amount 
of lead, and a piece of wood or tin the thickness of 
lead is put between valve and port holding the valve, 
the valve-rod being connected to valve and rocker-arm. 




























VA L VE- SE T TING . 


83 


The eccentric-rod is then fastened to link; and as most 
rods have oblong holes in them to allow them to be 
moved, the rod is connected to the strap and the nut 
tightened up and the wheel moved around to the back 
centre; and if the lead-opening is the same as for the 
front port, the rod is of the proper length, and then 
the two other holes are marked on the eccentric-strap 
and bored out. Rut in an engine which has been run¬ 
ning the eccentrics must be lengthened or shortened 
by contracting or expanding in a forge, which is done 
by a competent smith. 

Next find the length of the backward eccentric-rod 
as in the forward, except that the lever is in full back 
gear. Try it on both centres, as before. 

When an engine has become lame after being run 
for some time, the valves are found to be opening the 
ports unequally, that is, one port is open wider than 
the other, with the same travel on the valve. There 
is no difference in the travel of the valve over the seat, 
but the centre of the travel of the valve has been 
moved either ahead or back of the centre of the valve- 
seat. 

This will cause the valve to cut off unequally, and 
one end of the cylinder is doing more work than the 
other. This can be told by the exhaust, and to rectify 
this the eccentric-rod should be lengthened or short¬ 
ened, as the case may be; for if the valve opened wider 
on the front port, then on the back one the eccentric- 
rod must be shortened, which will change the centre 
of valve-travel, or throw the valve ahead and equalize 
the port-opening. The amount must be determined 
by the one setting the valves. 


84 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


When the back port is open more than the front 
port; then the eccentric-rod must be lengthened, and 
the valve will be drawn back to the centre-line of the 
valve-seat. 

When an eccentric is shifted, it can be easily known 
by the lead-opening. As an example, the writer was 
on an engine which broke a valve-stem and eccentric- 
straps, and for some cause the eccentric became shifted, 
and when the valve-setter put the gear up again, the 
engine had fully one-quarter lead with the valve that 
was used before, the lead being almost equal for both 
ports. The valve-setter was puzzled, when the writer 
suggested that he examine the eccentric centre, which 
he did, and found the trouble at once, moved the 
eccentric back in its place, and the lead was all right. 

Valves cannot be made to cut off equally, on ac¬ 
count of angularity of rod-motion; but when an 
engine is running along, and there are two heavy beats 
and two mild beats or exhaust, the trouble is that 
one engine is working stronger than the other, and it 
is caused by the link-blocks being in different positions 
of the link. A link-hanger that is longer on one side 
will cause it, and should be shortened, or both made 
the same length. 

Another cause is, that one saddle-pin is worn more 
than another, or eye in link-hanger, or the tumbling- 
shaft boxes being of different heights. The cause very 
often of valve being out is the wear of driving-boxes 
between shoe and box; the wedge is back of box, 
and wear is taken up at that point, throwing the axle 
ahead that moves the eccentric also. In order to find 


VAL VE-SE TTING. 


85 


the position of reverse-lever for different cut-offs, move 
the piston-head from the end of cylinder the number 
of inches that is wanted for cut-off, and then raise links 
up until the valve closes the port, and mark point on 
quadrant. 


TABLE I. 


> 

n 

> 

Width of Port¬ 
opening. 

Point of Cut-off. 

Point of Release. 

Lead. 

0 







’ll 

> 

rt 

w 

H 

Back¬ 

ward 

Stroke. 

Forward 

Stroke. 

Back¬ 

ward 

Stroke. 

Forward 

Stroke. 

Back¬ 

ward 

Stroke. 

Forward 

Stroke. 


2} 

11 

32 

5 

TF 

8 

6 * 

17 

i6| 

¥ 9 2 

2| 

7 

T6 


9* 


i8| 

18 A 

* 

2f 

T7> 

i 

12 

nf 

19! 

i 9 tb 

7 

3F 

3^ 

H 

41 

6T 

14 

14 

20fi 

20 i 9 f 

3 

TF 


t 

2 7 

FF 

i6i 

i6£ 

2lH 

21J 

5 

3F 

4 

ii 


i8i 

i8| 

22f 

22f 

1 

F 

4i 

if 

if 

19 ! 

19I 

2 3 if 

22f 

3 

ss 

5 

if 

if 

20f 

20i 

23 i 

23 i 

1 

IF 


Travel of valve... 

Steam-ports. 

Exhaust-ports. 

Lap of valve. 

Inside lap of valve 
Lead full stroke.. . 


5 

2f 

7 

F 

iV 

tV 


Table II shows the different travel and point of cut¬ 
off of two valves, one having 5-inch throw or travel and 
{ lap, the other 3^ throw and \ lap, both cutting off at 





























86 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


the same point, showing the difference in port-opening 
between a long- and short-throw eccentric.* 

TABLE II. 

Width of Opening of Steam-ports. 


)int 

of Cut-off. 

Eccentric 5-inch 

Eccentric 3^-inch 



Throw. 

Throw. 

6 

inches 

inch 

5 

inch 

8 

u 

9 << 

3 

<< 


inr 

TIT 


IO 

<( 

11 <« 

A 

(( 

12 

u 

7 << 

TB- 

A 

u 

i 5 

u 

i “ 

« 

u 

18 

(t 

3 1 « 

t tV 

u 

21 

(( 

ij “ 

TH^ 

HH 

a 


* M. N. Forney. 







c/d 

> 

in 

pi 

w 

2 

a 

2 

M 

o' 

2 

a 

o 

pL, 

S 

o 

U 

erf 

w 

Q 

2 

HH 

a 

a 

o 

£ 

H 

04 

02 

< 

2 

2 

W 

CU 




• to 

« ^ 

O) C- 

^ 2 

Cu 


</D in 

1- o 


u. 

Q 


4 D 


Vh 

<L> 


P 

C/3 

C/3 

CL) 

J- 

cx 


o 

s 


I 3 


.5 «j ° 


_ _ -a 
Q m « 


C/3 

-0 


p 

o 

a 


8 


o 

O 


<u 

aj 

o 

1—I 


c/D 

i- 

a; 

> 


i- 

Q 


C/D 


c 

o 


CO 

M 


-C 

b£ 

x« <- s 


- ° ^ 


co 


X « 


& f r S » 

W **t 

o 


C/D V-i 

tt 3 « 


-a a/ 

.5 S 


T! 05 
io — 


U Q 


















CHAPTER IX. 


THE COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 

LOCOMOTIVE-BUILDERS, in endeavoring to keep the 
locomotive ahead as a motive power, have been advo¬ 
cating the compound engine, of which many have been 
built in this country and are being handled by our en¬ 
gineers and firemen. The idea of a compound engine 
is the saving of fuel, which means dollars and cents to 
any railroad company. 

The different methods of compounding are the two- 
cylinder and the four-cylinder, also the three-cylinder, 
in which two high-pressure and one low-pressure are 
used. 


ELABORATE TEST OF COMPOUND ENGINES. 

It is not claimed for compound locomotives that 
a heavier train can be hauled at a given speed than 
with a single-expansion engine of similar weight and 
class. No engine can haul more than its adhesion will 
allow ; but a compound will, at a very low speed on 
heavy grades, keep a train moving where a single-ex¬ 
pansion engine will slip and stall. This is due to the 
pressure on the crank-pin on the compound being 
more uniform throughout the stroke than is the case 
with a single-expansion engine. 

The principal object in compounding locomotives is 
to effect fuel economy, and this economy is obtained— 
I. By the consumption of a smaller quantity of steam 

87 


88 L 0 COMO Tl VE ME CM A NISM A ND ENGINEERING. 

in the cylinders than is necessary for a single-expansion 
engine doing the same work. 2. The amount of water 

o o 

evaporated in doing the same work being less in the 
compound, a slower rate of combustion combined with 
a mild exhaust produces a higher efficiency from the 
coal burned. In a stationary engine, which does not 
produce its own steam-supply, it is of course proper to 
measure its efficiency solely by its economical con¬ 
sumption of steam. In an engine of this description 
the boilers are fired independently, and the draught is 
formed from causes entirely separate and beyond the 
control of the escape of steam from the cylinders; 
hence any economy shown by the boilers must of 
necessity be separate and distinct from that which may 
be effected by the engine itself. In a locomotive, how¬ 
ever, the amount of work depends entirely upon the 
weight on the driving-wheels, the cylinder dimensions 
being proportioned to this weight; and whether the 
engine is compound or single-expansion, no larger boiler 
can be provided, after allowing for the wheels, frames, 
and other mechanism, than this weight permits. 

Therefore the heating-surfaces and grate-area are 
practically the same in both types, and the evaporative 
efficiency of both locomotives is determined by the ac¬ 
tion of the exhaust, which must be of sufficient inten¬ 
sity in both cases to generate the amount of steam 
necessary for utilizing, to the best advantage, the 
weight on the driving-wheels. 

This is a feature that does not appear in a station¬ 
ary engine, so that a compound locomotive cannot be 
judged by stationary standard, and the only true com¬ 
parison to be made is between locomotives of similar 


THE COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 


89 


construction and weight, equipped in one case with 
compound and in the other with single-expansion cylin¬ 
ders. One of the legitimate advantages of the com¬ 
pound system is, that, owing to the better utilization of 
the steam, less demand is made upon the boiler, which 
enables sufficient steam-pressure to be maintained 
with the mild exhaust, due to the low tension of the 
steam when exhausted from the cylinders. This milder 
exhaust does not tear the fire, nor carry fuel uncon¬ 
sumed through the flues into the smoke-box and from 
there out of the smoke-stack, but is sufficient to main¬ 
tain the necessary rate of combustion in the fire-box, 
with a decreased velocity of the products of combus¬ 
tion through the flues. 

The heating-surfaces of a boiler absorb heat-units 
from the fire and deliver them to the water at a certain 
rate. If the rate at which the products of combustion 
are carried away exceeds the capacity of the heating- 
surfaces to absorb and deliver the heat to the water in 
the boiler, there is a continual waste, that can be over¬ 
come only by reducing the velocity of the products 
of combustion passing through the tubes. This is ef¬ 
fected by the compound principle. It gives, therefore, 
not only the economy effected by a smaller consump¬ 
tion of water for the same work, but the additional 
economy due to slower combustion, It is obvious that 
these two sources of economy are interdependent. The 
improved action of the boiler can be obtained only by 
the use of the compound principle, while the use of the 
compound principle enables the engine to develop its 
full efficiency under conditions which in a single-expan¬ 
sion engine would require a boiler of such large capac- 


90 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


ity as to be out of the question under circumstances 
usually governing locomotive construction. Also, the 
compound system prolongs the life of the boiler by 
decreasing the demand on it for steam. 

We will now endeavor to explain the system of com¬ 
pounding, so that it may be understood by the begin¬ 
ner. To many who are handling our present locomo¬ 
tive it seems a difficult question to solve how any effect 
can be produced by the additional expansion. The 
back-pressure seems to be the most troublesome point. 

.SteamTValre direction the Plsfons will move 



Showing the action oftivo Piston Heads 
on one rod with Steam between them 


Fig. 43. 

Those handling engines frequently ask the question : 
“ How can the steam exert any more power after once 
expanding the high-pressure cylinder? Will not the 
pressure against the high-pressure piston counteract 
any power thus derived ? ” 

By referring to Fig. 43 will be seen a simple way of 
explaining the effect of steam between two pistons on 
a single piston-rod, as in a tandem compound engine. 
This applies as well to any other system of condensing 
or non-condensing compound engine. 



































































THE COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 91 

Fig- 43 > on P a g e 90, shows two piston-heads, A, B. 
Piston-head A is perhaps three times as large as piston- 
head B. These heads are fastened on one piston-rod. 
The cylinder is made to suit the diameters of the heads, 
there being no cylinder-head between these two piston- 
heads. Having connected the piston-heads and cylin¬ 
der to suit, the pipe 7 is tapped into the cylinder at C. 
Now when steam is let into the cylinder between the 
piston-heads A and B, which way will the pistons move, 
or will they move at all? 

The answer is, that they will move in the direction of 
the arrow, or with the larger piston-head A. This is 
because of the difference in area of the two piston- 
heads, they being exposed to the same steam-pressure 
per square inch. The greater pressure of power is 
against the larger piston A , thus overcoming the press¬ 
ure against the smaller piston-head B. The effective 
pressure against the piston-head A is that represented 
by the dotted lines, which was resisted in its expansion 
by the shoulder or head on the cylinder at X. Thus it 
is shown that it is possible to connect two piston-heads 
on a single rod and get a movement of the piston-heads 
when the steam is introduced between them, the one 
piston-head being larger than the other. So it is with 
the compound engine. The low-pressure cylinders are 
of a larger diameter than the high-pressure cylinder. 
Now this figure represents the compound engine ex¬ 
actly. Fig. 44 is a tandem compound or four-cylinder 
engine. Some builders prefer this principle on account 
of the power being equal on both sides of the locomo¬ 
tive, and the powers of the high and low pressure in 
line with the centre-line of motion. One fact should 


92 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


be particularly understood, that the compound engine 
is supposed to use the steam that is being exhausted 
into the atmosphere, directly from the cylinder of a 
high-pressure simple engine, to a better advantage by 
expanding it into another cylinder before it escapes 
into the atmosphere. 

To explain this, it will be supposed that a simple en¬ 
gine is being run with a train, and the initial pressure is 


B 


A 

Steam from H. P. Cylinder 





Nrrrrrrr., 


YtYY.YWZi 


Live Stea m- 
from Boiler I 


-CO 


,H. P. Cyl. 

Steam Exhausting _ 

into.L. P. Steam Chest / L- P-Cyl. 

(Effective Pressure) H. 

J 2 3 ,4 

Space A. A. A. A. is a Balanced Pressure^ 
between the two Piston Heads* 
lTa ndem Cotn vound.Ena ine, 


Fig. 44. 


one hundred pounds to the square inch in the cylinder. 
The point of cut-off is one-half stroke: then expansion 
take place at or near the end of stroke. It is found 
that the steam has been reduced in its pressure just 
one half of the initial pressure of one hundred pounds, 
which makes the terminal pressure fifty pounds per 
square inch when it escapes into the atmosphere. 
This terminal pressure varies with the point of cut-off 
and the initial pressure. 

Then it is this high terminal pressure that the com¬ 
pound engine saves by exhausting it into the low- 





































































THE COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 93 

pressure cylinder, causing it to expand further and to 
a lower terminal, as in the tandem cylinder. 

In Fig. 44 the compounding is clearly shown as fol¬ 
lows : B is the high-pressure and A is the low-pressure 
cylinder, corresponding to B and A in Fig. 43 ; but the 
two cylinders in this case are separated, or have a 
head between them, thus making them into two cylin¬ 
ders of different diameters. The two piston-heads are 
on the same piston-rod, which is connected to the cross¬ 
head. A stuffing-box is provided between the two 
cylinders for the piston-rod. The exhaust-steam from 
high-pressure cylinder passes to low-pressure chest 
by the pipe O. There are two steam-valves for con¬ 
trolling the inlet and outlet of steam in the cylin¬ 
ders, also the exhaust. As shown, the piston-heads 
are moving in the direction of the arrow, and the 
H. P. valves are cutting off steam at half stroke. This 
is done to illustrate the action of the terminal or ex¬ 
haust pressure ; steam is entering the back end of the 
high-pressure cylinder from the boiler, the initial press¬ 
ure is one hundred pounds. The steam that was ex¬ 
panded in the forward end of the high-pressure cylin¬ 
der whose initial pressure was one hundred pounds, 
cut-off at one-half stroke, expanded in that end down 
to fifty pounds, is now being exhausted over into the 
low-pressure cylinder, as shown by the arrow, and ex¬ 
erting its power against the low-pressure piston-head, 
thus getting an additional power from the steam that 
would have been exhausted into the atmosphere, at 
fifty pounds per square inch. 

Then if the volume of the low-pressure cylinder was 
three times that of the high-pressure, and the steam 


94 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 

was to follow the low-pressure full stroke, the average 
pressure throughout the whole stroke of the low-pres¬ 
sure cylinder would be one third of fifty pounds, 
or sixteen pounds.* Thus in this case, instead of a 
terminal of fifty pounds per square inch, as in the 
simple engine cutting off at the same point in the high- 
pressure cylinder of the compound engine, we get a 
terminal of sixteen. Then by getting this increased 
expansion in the compound engine it enables the 
high-pressure cylinder of the compound engine to be 
reduced in its area below that of the present high- 
pressure engine, thus reducing the amount of steam 
used, which represents fuel saved. The total power 
of the two cylinders in a tandem engine should equal 
the power of one high-pressure cylinder. 

In calculating the power of the compound engine, 
the average mean effective pressure through the stroke 
of high-pressure cylinder per square inch is multiplied 
by the area of that cylinder in square inches ; then find 
the average mean effective pressure in the low-pressure 
cylinder, multiply that by the area of the low-pressure 
cylinder, and at the same time deduct from the total 
power of the low-pressure piston the area of the high- 
pressure piston-head, multiplied by the average press¬ 
ure in the low-pressure cylinder. The power remain¬ 
ing after this deduction is the actual power of low- 
pressure cylinder; this, then, added to the power of the 
high-pressure piston head, is the total pull or power 
of the steam pushing the two piston-heads. 

Another deduction has to be made from this total 


* Omitting fractions. 



THE COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE . 


95 


power, and that is the back-pressure in face of the low- 
pressure piston-head. This is the total power of the 
compound engine. Fig. 46 shows the distribution of 
steam in the cylinders. 

Cylinder condensation is a point that is .not usually 
understood,—I mean in the manner in which the term 
is used in connection with the compound engine. 
Any change in the temperature of steam causes a 
change in the pressure of that steam, so that the 
higher the temperature the more expansive the steam. 
In compounding, excessive cylinder condensation is 
thought to be reduced. 

Cylinder condensation is caused in the following 
manner : When a cylinder takes steam, the wall of the 
cylinder absorbs a certain amount of heat from the 
entering steam, thus reducing the temperature of that 
steam and causing a loss in pressure. This action 
takes place until about the time of exhaust-opening, 
when re-evaporation takes place, which in a simple 
engine is exhausted into the atmosphere. The cause 
of this re-evaporation is, that when the steam has ex¬ 
panded to the point of exhaust it is at the lowest tem¬ 
perature it will reach while in the cylinder at this 
point, the cylinder walls being hotter than the steam. 
The steam that was condensed while the walls of 
cylinder were absorbing the heat from the incoming 
steam being in the form of water, reabsorbs the heat 
from the cylinder walls and turns into steam. 

Water is a great absorber of heat, and in the com¬ 
pound engine this regenerated steam exerts its press¬ 
ure against the low-pressure piston-head. In a high- 
pressure or simple engine, when expansion is long in 


g6 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


the cylinder, it causes a great variation in the tempera¬ 
ture of the steam. 

If the steam entered the cylinder at one hundred 
pounds per square inch the temperature would be 338 
degrees, and if expanded four times, or twenty-five 
pounds, the terminal temperature would be 240, leaving 
the walls at this temperature, so that the incoming 
steam would again be robbed of some of its heat, to 
bring the temperature of the cylinder walls up again. 
In the figures given we find a difference of 98 degrees 
between the temperature of the steam when it first 
entered the cylinder and when the exhaust was about 
to take place ; and the amount of heat absorbed by 
the wall to equalize the temperature is 49 degrees, 
which causes the condensation spoken of. This con¬ 
densation is less as the steam follows the piston farther 
before cut-off takes place, or as the expansion is re¬ 
duced. 

In most compounds the steam is cut off at or near 
the end of the stroke in the high-pressure and then 
expanded in low-pressure cylinder. 

Keeping the temperature nearly the same in the 
two cylinders, preventing excessive condensation. 

The different systems are being pushed, and there 
are a great many two-cylinder compound engines run¬ 
ning which give satisfaction. In a compound engine 
simplicity of construction is the main point looked at 
by some builders. The two-cylinder seems to meet 
that point. The difference in the two-cylinder com¬ 
pound engine is to be found in the construction of the 
intercepting-valve. Some work automatically, others 
work by hand. 


THE COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 


97 


The purpose of this valve is, in starting, to introduce 
live steam into the low-pressure cylinder and cut it off 
from that cylinder when under way. Some are made 
so that the engine can be run as a simple engine or 
compound, at will. 

The difference between the four-cylinder engine and 
the two-cylinder, in handling the exhaust steam from 
the high to the low-pressure cylinder, is that in the two- 
cylinder the steam passes into a receiver or steam pipe 
in the front end or smoke-arch, and there the steam is 
reheated, as the receiver is exposed to the hot gases 
coming through the flues. This is a very good feature 
in a two-cylinder engine. 


CHAPTER X. 


INDICATOR-CARDS. 

The action of double-expansion in a compound en¬ 
gine is very simply shown by an indicator-card. 

An indicator-card is traced on paper by a machine 
called an indicator, of which the construction is as 
follows (Fig. 45): 

The main part consists of a cylinder, which is at¬ 
tached to the steam-cylinder of which cards are being 
taken. 

In this small cylinder is a piston-head having a piston- 
rod. To the piston-rod is a pencil-bar, which carries 
the pencil which traces the card. A spring is on the 
top of the piston-head to counteract the steam-pressure 
underneath. The springs are of various tensions, de¬ 
pendent on the steam-pressure used in the cylinder. 
On the cylinder is attached a revolving barrel, which 
carries the paper on which the card is traced. This 
barrel takes its motion from a cord which is fastened 
to a reducer, the reducer being fastened to the cross¬ 
head of the engine. The card then moves the whole 
stroke of the piston-head in steam-cylinder. 

We have given this plain description of the indicator 
in order to give the reader some idea of how a card is 
taken. There are some very good books on the indi- 

98 


INDICA TOR-CARDS. 


99 



Fig. 45. 

























































IOO LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


cator, such as “ Twenty Years with the Indicator,’ by 
Thomas Pray, Jr., and others. 

The indicator-card shows exactly the distribution 
and action of the steam in a cylinder, and is traced as 
in Fig. 46, which shows a compound card. 



Boiler-Pressure - 154 lbs. 

Throttle - Full 

Reverse Lever -*- 6th Notch 

Speed ——- 96 Revolutions per Minute 

Pressure at Release - 67 lbs. 

Single Expansion Engine 



Throttle - Full 

Reverse Lever - 6th Notch 

Speed - 78 Revolutions per Minute 

Pressure at Release --- 26 lbs. 

Compound Engine, A Cylinders 




The straight line at AA is called the atmospheric 
line. With no steam in the cylinder the pencil would 
rest on the line A A, but when the steam-valve opens 
the pencil will be moved up to B, and as the valve 
remains open the pencil will trace the line from B to C, 
which is called the steam-line. When the valve closes 






























INDICA I'OR-CARDS. 101 

at C then expansion begins, and continues to the point 
E ; this is called the point of release. From E to D is 
the exhaust and back-pressure line. From D to B is the 
compression-line, the valve being closed to the exhaust. 

This is the outline of the high-pressure card. There 
being an indicator on the low-pressure cylinder, the 
low-pressure card is traced also. 

When the steam begins to exhaust from the high- 
pressure cylinder at E on high-pressure card, the low- 
pressure valve opens and the steam-line from R to 5 " is 
traced, while the line from E to D is traced on the 
high-pressure card. 

When the low-pressure valve closes at S the expan¬ 
sion in low-pressure cylinder takes place, as from 5 to 
T ; then the exhaust begins, and continues until the 
valve closes at X. As will be seen, the steam has been 
expanded in two cylinders before exhausting into the 
atmosphere, and the terminal pressure in low-pressure 
cylinder is 26 lbs. The boiler-pressure was 172 lbs., 
and has been expanded down to 26 lbs. at the point 
of exhaust. In Fig. 46 is a card taken from a high- 
pressure or single-expansion, the boiler-pressure being 
154 lbs., the speed being nearly the same for both en¬ 
gines ; the terminal pressure is 67 lbs., which is a much 
higher terminal than the compound engine; also, the 
high-pressure engine has a much lower pressure. Then 
it is this high terminal pressure which the advocates 
of the compound engine claim is used as an additional 
power, instead of being exhausted out into the atmos¬ 
phere as in the single engine, thereby reducing the 
amount of steam used to do a certain amount of work, 
and so saving fuel. 


CHAPTER XI. 


DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF COM¬ 
POUND LOCOMOTIVES. 

THE VAUCLAIN OR BALDWIN SYSTEM. 

In designing the “Vauclain” or Baldwin system of 
compound locomotives, the following results have been 
sought: 

1. To compound an ordinary locomotive with the 
fewest possible alterations necessary to obtain the 
greatest efficiency as a compound locomotive. 

2. To develop the same amount of power on each 
side of the locomotive, and avoid the racking of the 
machinery resulting from uneven distribution of power. 

3. To make a locomotive in every respect as efficient 
as a single-expansion engine of similar weight and type. 

4. To insure the least possible difference in the cost 
of repairs. 

5. To attain the utmost simplicity and freedom from 
complication. 

6. To realize the maximum economy of fuel and 
water. 

7. To require the least possible departure from the 
methods of handling usual with single-expansion loco¬ 
motives. 

8. To permit a train, in case of breakdown, to be 
brought in without unusual delay, when using but one 
side of the locomotive. 


102 



•n • • 

to ^Lv- 
4- ~ — 
' 3 

• p 3 

p g* 

- j-t 

to "* 
to •“• 

:W 


P 

3 

p 

r-♦ 

p 


p 

3 

P 

r-+ 

p 


3 

2.3 
op d* g 


^ 3 * p 

« r* p 


w 3 
-0 3 - 
o a« 
c “ • 

3 

CL 

V) 


DH 
2. o 

< p 

°? ^ 

3 s- 

-r n> 

p 2. 

p ' 

— cr 

ph p 

UJ c/i 
P P 
'/i - 

? to 
to 

•^J 

'uj 
O t 4 - 
















104 LOCOMOTIVE M ECIIAN ISM AND ENGINEERING. 


9. To be equally applicable to passenger and freight 
engines. 

10. To withstand the rough usage incidental to ordi¬ 
nary railroad service. 

The principal features of the construction are as 
follows: 

The cylinders consist of one high-pressure and one 
low-pressure for each side, the ratio of the volumes 



Fig. 48.—Cylinders for High Wheels. 

being as nearly three to one as the employment of con¬ 
venient measurement will allow. They are cast in one 
piece with the valve-chamber and saddle, the cylinders 
being in the same vertical plane, and as close together 
as they can be with adequate walls between them. 
Where the conditions, such as diameter of driving- 








THE BALDWIN COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 105 

wheels and type of engine, will allow, the high-pressure 
cylinder is put on top, Fig. 48 ; but where the wheels are 
low, the position is reversed, Fig. 49. This latter is 
the practice with consolidation and other engines, 
where the roadway clearance would interfere should 
the first position be used. The valve-chamber is placed 
in the cylinder-saddle between the boiler and cylinders. 



Fig. 49.—Cylinders for Low Wheels. 


As the construction of this chamber is such that the 
steam-passage must be rough-cored, a bushing, in which 
the ports are accurately slotted, is turned to a neat fit 
and forced into the valve-chamber. The ports in the 
bushing are divided at regular intervals by bridges, as 
shown in Fig. 50. The valve shown by Fig. 51 is of the 
hollow-piston type, fitted with cast-iron rings sprung in¬ 
to place, after the manner of the ordinary piston-rings. 











10 6 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


It is a combination of two D valves in piston form, 
the two ends of which control the admission and ex¬ 
haust of steam to and from the high-pressure cylinder, 
and the inner rings perform the same functions for the 
low-pressure cylinder. 



Fig. 50. 



Fig. 51. 

Its operation will be clearly understood by Fig. 52. 
When the low-pressure piston is placed on top, the 
position of the valve is such as to preclude the use of 











The BALDWIN COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 107 

the common rocker-box. Case-hardened cross-head 
and guides are substituted, and operated in direct 
motion from the links by means of an extension-bar. 



Fig. 52.—Diagram of the Baldwin Patent Compound Cylinder 
and Piston Slide-valve, showing the Course of the Steam. 


In this manner the wear is reduced to a minimum, and 
all parts are made easy of access. 

The cross-head, which is shown in Fig. 53, is of cast 
steel, of a pattern combining great strength with the 
least possible metal. 
















































































































































108 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


The wearing-surfaces are covered with block-tin one- 
sixteenth inch thick. The piston-rods are of the same 
size for both high-pressure and low-pressure piston. 
This is to secure uniformity of parts, ease in fitting up, 
and to make it unnecessary to carry more than one size 
of piston-rod packing in stock. The low-pressure pis- 



Fig. 53. 


tons and rods are so proportioned that in case an 
excess of pressure is by accident admitted to the low- 
pressure cylinder they will withstand the strain with 
an adequate factor of safety. 

The starting-valve of the Baldwin Compound is sim¬ 
ple in construction, but the action is hardly understood 
by a great many handling the engine. The operation 
is as follows : 











THE BALDWIN COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. IO9 


When the valve is put in position for starting, live 
steam passes from that end of high-pressure cylinder 
in which main-valve is admitting live-steam, through 
the starting-valve to the other end of high-pressure 
cylinder—bear in mind that the steam-port on this end 
of high-pressure cylinder is open to the low-pressure 
steam-port — through the main-valve, which is the 
course the exhaust-steam would take, Fig. 52. The 



I 

13 


Fig. 54.—Combined Cylinder-cock and Starting-valve for 
Vauclain Compound Locomotive. 

live-steam would follow this same course, exerting its 
power against the low-pressure piston, and at the same 
time, at slow speed, put the high-pressure piston-head 
in nearly an equilibrium. 

But the amount of steam that enters the low-press¬ 
ure cylinder through the starting-valve decreases as 
the speed increases. The combined starting-valve and 
cylinder-cock, Fig. 54, consists of a single casting, in 









IIO LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


which there are two taper-plugs, one controlling the 
high-pressure cylinder-cock and the steam for starting, 
the other controlling the low-pressure cylinder-cock. 



Fig. 55.—Combined Starting-valve and Cylinder-cock for 

Compound Locomotive. 

The two plugs are held in place by springs, and con¬ 
trolled by an arm operated by a lever in cab. The 
operation is as follows : 

In position 1 the starting-valve is open to admit 






























THE BALDWIN COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. Ill 

live steam to the low-pressure cylinder, the cylinder- 
cocks at the same time being open to the atmosphere. 

In position 2 all passages are closed. 

In position 3 the starting-valve only is open to 
admit live steam to low-pressure cylinder. Fig. 55 
shows the application. Air-valves to relieve the 
vacuum in the low-pressure cylinders when the engine 
is running with steam shut off are placed in each end 
of the low-pressure cylinders, where cylinder-cocks are 
ordinarily located. BB, Fig. 55. 

The combination cylinder-cock and by-pass valve, 
Fig. 56,* is designed to take the place of independent 



Fig. 56. 

cylinder-cocks and by-pass valve for each cylinder, so 
the whole may be operated by a single lever in the cab. 

The construction of this valve is such that by a 
simple movement of the lever the cylinder-cocks may 
be opened or closed and at the same time admit live 


* Old style. 







112 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


steam into the low-pressure cylinder, when needed to 
start a train ; or the cylinder-cocks may be closed, the 
live steam cut off from the low-pressure cylinder, and 
the engine will be compounding in the most economi¬ 



cal manner. The valve consists of a cylinder having a 
connection to each end of the high- and low-pressure 
cylinders, in which works a plunger with three piston- 
heads fitted with packing-rings. These piston-heads 





















































































































THE BALDWIN COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. I 13 

are so spaced that by a change of their position in the 
cylinders the desired results described above are ob¬ 
tained. These are the only points of difference be¬ 
tween a Vauclain compound and a single-expansion 
locomotive. The compound is operated the same as 
an ordinary engine, with the exception of the by-pass 
or intercepting valve, which is used only in starting to 
admit high-pressure steam to the low-pressure cylin¬ 
ders. 

ACCIDENTS WITH THE BALDWIN COMPOUND. 

When a main steam valve-rod on a Baldwin Com¬ 
pound is broken or disconnected, what must be done 
in order to bring the engine in? 

The valve must be put in the centre of the seat, 
covering all the ports on that side. Take down main- 
rod and block cross-head as for a simple engine. (See 
Fig. 57 for position of valve.) This rule applies for 
both engines, as they are the same in construction. 

Can a Baldwin Compound be run with both sides if 
a low-pressure cylinder-head is broken out? 

The engine can be run with a low-pressure cylinder- 
head broken out with both sides without disconnecting. 

What would be the course of the steam on the broken 
side ? 

The steam from one end of the high-pressure cylin¬ 
der would pass into low-pressure cylinder, and from 
there into the stack ; but from that on which head is 
broken out the steam would pass out into the atmos¬ 
phere through open end of cylinder. 

Would it be policy to disconnect in a case of this 
kind ? 


I 14 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


It would, on account of the escaping steam interrupt¬ 
ing the view of the engineer, if far to go, when broken 
on his side. But when the piston-head breaks from 
the cross-head, goes out of the cylinder, the steam 
escapes from both ends of high-pressure cylinder into 
atmosphere through open ends of low-pressure cylin¬ 
der. 

Has a Baldwin compound ever been run with both 
low-pressure cylinder-heads broken out ? 

They have been run for some distance this way. 

How many exhausts is there on the fire running 
with both low-pressure cylinder-heads broken out ? 

Only two per revolution. 

Can a Baldwin Compound be run with the high- 
pressure piston-heads taken out of cylinders? 

The engine can be run in this manner by putting a 
board or washer across the stuffing-box, bolting it fast. 
This will make it steam-tight. The steam-valve will 
supply steam to the low-pressure cylinder. 

What would be the course of the steam ? 

The steam would enter the high-pressure cylinders, 
pass from there through the main steam-valves into 
the low-pressure cylinders, these cylinders acting as a 
high-pressure engine. 

When a main-rod breaks or is disconnected, what 
should be done ? 

The valve put in centre of seat on that side covering 
all ports blocking cross-head ; run with the other side. 

On engines using the direct motion for the valves, 
the end of valve steam is carried on cross-head, sliding 
between guides. 

What is a good way to fasten the yalve? 


Fig. 58.— Two-cylinder Compound Passenger Locomotive for the Pennsylvania Railroad 
Built by the Schenectady Locomotive Works, Schenectady N. Y. 

Cylinders H.P., 20X24. Total Weight, 138,000 pounds. Fire-box 96^ long. 

Cylinders L.P., 30X24. On Drivers, 102,000 pounds. “ 39^ wide. 

Driving-wheels 74". Boiler Diameter, 58". Pressure, 180 pounds. 






























Il6 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


Put the valve in centre of seat, and put blocks each 
side of small cross-head. 

If the small equalizing-valve in the end of main 
steam-valve is broken or taken out, would it interfere 
with the working of the engine on that side? 

It would convert that side into a high-pressure 
engine. The work would be done by the low-pressure 
cylinder, the high-pressure piston would be nearly 
balanced ; this would occur also when a head was 
broken out of the main steam-valve. 

When running along and not using steam, always 
open the cylinder-cocks; this will prevent the low- 
pressure piston from creating a vacuum in high-press¬ 
ure cylinder, and causing the packing to be picked up 
by the high-pressure piston-rod ; this is injurious to the 
packings, when the engine is equipped with old style 
of starting-valve. (See Fig. 56.) 

THE SCHENECTADY COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 

Probably the most interesting feature of this engine 
is the new starting gear and intercepting-valve appa¬ 
ratus, invented by Mr. A. J. Pitkin, Superintendent of 
the Schenectady Locomotive Works. This we show 
in considerable detail. Figs. 59 and 61 show the inter¬ 
cepting-valve open ; that is, in the position before the 
engine starts. Fig. 60 shows the intercepting-valve 
closed, or in the position at the time of the initial 
movement. 

The construction of this valve is as follows (see Figs. 
59, 60, and 61): 

There are two pistons A A at one end of the single 


SCHENECTADY COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. II 7 

stem B, which moves to and fro in a cylindrical cham¬ 
ber having three openings. Two of these openings, 


o 

• 

on 

O 



C C y lead to the receiver and to the low-pressure 
steam-chest, as shown in Fig. 59, and it is the office of 
the pistons A A to open and close these large openings 
and prevent the steam in the low-pressure steam-chest 

















































































































































118 locomotive mechanism and engineering. 


from entering the receiver when it is not wanted there. 
The other opening, D, in this cylinder (see Figs. 59 and 



60) connects the intercepting-valve cylinder with the 
low-pressure steam-chest. 

So far we have described the intercepting-valve 
proper. The remaining portion of the mechanism is 
























































































































































Fig. 6i. 


SCHENECTADY COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. XI9 


the apparatus for driving and connecting the intercept- 
ing-valve. It is constructed as follows: 

On the end of the stem B , which passes through a 



stuffing-box in the end of the intercepting-valve cham¬ 
ber, there is a piston E, which moves in a small cylin¬ 
der having ports F and G, one at each end. These 
ports lead to a valve-seat, on which is a plain D valve 































































































































































































120 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


not unlike the ordinary locomotive slide-valve. This 
slide-valve is moved to and fro by means of a double 
piston with a stem between, shown at J and K. These 
pistons are of different diameter, K being larger than 
J , and as they move to and fro they carry with them 
the slide-valve. The office of this portion of the 
mechanism is to move the intercepting-valve AA to 
and fro, as desired. 

The third part of the device consists of a balance 
poppet-valve L, which is placed in the path of steam 
coming direct from the boiler to the low-pressure cyl¬ 
inder to assist in starting. This valve has an extended 
spindle M on the lower side, and is lifted by means 
of a bell-crank N, which is driven by means of a trun¬ 
nion on the intercepting-valve stem B. As the stem 
B passes to the right the valve L is lifted, and as it 
passes to the left the valve L is allowed to fall. Fig. 
62 is a detail of the pipe connections and passages lead¬ 
ing to the pistons JK, the office of which will be de- 



Fig. 62. Fig. 64. 


scribed in what follows. Fig. 63 shows the location of 
the intercepting-valve and its parts in relation to the 
cylinders and steam-pipes. Fig. 64 is a section through 
the slide-valve //, showing that it has a cylindrical seat. 
The operation of this valve is follows: 














SCHENECTADY COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 121 


The engineer opens the throttle as usual. Steam 
passes into the high-pressure steam-pipe 0 , Fig. 63, and 
passes through the pipe P, which is tapped into the 



side of the saddle to the apparatus which actuates the 
intercepting-valve, as shown in Figs. 59 and 62. It 
passes down through the passage Q, through the small 
ports 5 S, between the pistons / and K. K being larger 





































122 locomotive mechanism and engineering . 


than J, it has a greater total pressure; hence the pis¬ 
tons move to the right and carry the slide-valve with 
them. This opens the port E, and allows the steam to 
pass on the left side of the piston E, and forces it, to¬ 
gether with the intercepting-valve A A, to the right 
until it is in the position shown in Fig. 60, with the C C 
passages closed. The position of the pistons J K and 
the slide-valve H at this time are shown in Fig. 60. 

During the foregoing operation, as the intercepting- 
valve stem B moves to the right it carries with it the 
bell-crank to the position shown in Fig. 60, thus lifting 
the balance poppet-valve Z, and admitting steam, as 
shown by the arrows, Fig. 60, into the intercepting- 
valve cylinder, from whence it passes out through the 
opening D into the low-pressure cylinder steam-chest, 
and in this way steam is admitted direct from the boiler 
to the low-pressure steam-chest always just before the 
engine starts. 

As soon as the engine has started, and there is an 
exhaust into the receiver from the high-pressure cylin¬ 
der, steam passes from the receiver through the pipe 

F, shown in Fig. 61, to the passages leading to the small 
slide-valve H, as shown in Fig. 62. This pressure act¬ 
ing on the right-hand side of the larger piston K s 
through the smaller passage U, overcomes the press¬ 
ure on the other side of this piston K, and the pistons 
J and K move to the left, carrying the slide-valve H 
with them. This movement opens the steam-passage 

G , Fig. 59, and the exhaust-passage F, and admits steam 
to the right side of the piston E, and drives it to the 
left, and with it the intercepting-valves A , thus open¬ 
ing the passages C and the receiver to the low-pressure 


SCHENECTADY COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 123 

steam-chest. At the same time the bell-crank N is 
moved to the left, and the valve L is allowed to drop 
into the position shows in Fig. 59, thus cutting off the 
connection between the boiler and the low-pressure 
steam-chest. 

After this the engine works in the well-known way 
of the two-cylinder compound, that is, by taking steam 
into the high-pressure cylinder, discharging it into the 
receiver, taking it out of the receiver into the low- 
pressure cylinder, and discharging it into the atmos¬ 
phere. 

ACCIDENTS WITH THE SCHENECTADY COMPOUND 
LOCOMOTIVE AND INTERCEPTING-VALVE. 

When a main rod of the high-pressure engine is 
broken or disconnected, what should be done to bring 
the engine in or continue the trip? 

The high-pressure valve should be moved ahead to 
clear exhaust-port, and the piston pushed in the for¬ 
ward end of cylinder and blocked. The live steam 
would pass through the exhaust-port on the high-press¬ 
ure side into the receiver, from there into the low- 
pressure steam-chest. The low-pressure cylinder would 
then be acting as a high-pressure engine. Care must 
be taken not to open the throttle-valve suddenly, on 
account of the large area of low-pressure cylinder. 

When the low-pressure main-rod is broken or dis¬ 
connected, what should be done? 

The piston-head must be blocked in the back end of 
the cylinder, and the low-pressure valve moved back to 
clear the exhaust-port on that side, the valve cover- 


124 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


ing the back-port when a head is not broken out. 
Opening the exhaust-port on the low-pressure side 
provides an outlet for the exhaust-steam from high- 
pressure engine. 

Why must the high-pressure valve be pushed ahead? 

In order to clear the receiving-port, or the port by 
which the live steam enters the high-pressure steam- 
chest, this port being in the back end of the steam- 
chest. 

When a valve-rod breaks on either side, what should 
be done ? 

Do the same as for a broken main-rod on that side ; 
also, take down the main-rod and block cross-head. 

If the back-head of intercepting-valve steam-cylin¬ 
der broke out, could the engine be run as a compound 
engine ? 

The engine would be as a compound engine, from 
the fact that the intercepting-valve would not be 
moved to the position as when starting as a non¬ 
compound because of the steam in the intercepting- 
valve cylinder not being able to move the valve to the 
proper position on account of the head being broken 
out; also, the exhaust from the high-pressure cylinder 
into receiver would hold the intercepting-valve in the 
compounding position. 

Would steam escape from the steam-cylinder of in¬ 
tercepting-valve in this case when in the compounding 
position ? 

Steam would not escape when in this position. The 
engineer should see that the lever in cab is in the 
proper position for compounding. When the lever is 
put in the position for starting, then steam would es- 


SCHENECTADY COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 125 


cape from the back end of steam-cylinder of intercept¬ 
ing-valve with the head broken out. 

Has this ever happened ? 

It has. 

How would it be possible to use live steam in both 
cylinders when starting with the intercepting-valve 
disabled in the manner spoken of? 

Live steam could be used in both cylinders to start 
with by lifting the poppet-valve and blocking it from 
the seat. This would let live steam into the low- 
pressure steam-chest. 

When should this be done? 

Before the throttle is opened. 

Would it be possible to run with low-pressure cylin¬ 
der having the high-pressure valve covering all the 
ports on H. P. side? 

The engine can be run in this manner. With the 
intercepting poppet-valves steam will pass through the 
poppet-valve into the low-pressure steam-chest. The 
engineer must put the lever in cab in the position for 
starting. This will admit steam into back end of in¬ 
tercepting-valve steam-cylinder, closing the receiver 
and holding poppet-valve open. As there is no steam 
in the receiver, the intercepting-valve will not open and 
close the poppet-valve. 

Is there any other way in which the poppet-valve 
could be held open to admit live steam into the low- 
pressure steam-chest? 

The poppet-valve could be held open by taking the 
back head off the intercepting-valve steam-cylinder 
and pushing the piston-head in forward end of cylin¬ 
der and putting a block in, and putting on the head. 


126 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


This would prevent the steam in receiver from closing 
the poppet-valve. The same can be done with the 
small piston moving the valve admitting steam to the 
intercepting-valve steam-cylinder. This will also pre¬ 
vent the movement of the intercepting-valve mechan¬ 
ism and closing the poppet-valve. 

What form of breakdown would cause the high- 
pressure valve to be put in the position to cover all 
the ports on that side ? 

When both cylinder-heads are broken out or a front 
head broken out, and a piece broken out of the bridge 
between exhaust-port and front steam-port; also, it is 
policy when running with low-pressure cylinder alone, 
and do not want any steam to get into the high-press¬ 
ure cylinder, to cover all the ports on the high-pressure 
side. 

How can the engine be used as a high-pressure en¬ 
gine for some distance when starting? 

By shifting the lever in and out of compound posi¬ 
tion repeatedly. Remember that there is no steam in 
the intercepting-valve when the throttle is closed and 
the dry-pipe empty. Disconnect as for a simple engine 
for other breaks. 

COMPOUND PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE, NEW YORK, NEW 
HAVEN & HARTFORD R. R.* 

The line and photo engravings on the opposite page 
show the general appearance and some details of con¬ 
struction of a new eight-wheeled compound locomo- 


* Nat. Car g,nd Loco. Builder. 





M M S3 


HH 

p 

O' 

(_n 

’I 

n 


O 

<T> O 

c: 


^ "0 

"5 


to 

u\ 

C 











































128 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


tive built for the New York, New Haven & Hartford 
Railroad, according to designs furnished by Mr. John 
Henney, Jr., Superintendent of Motive Power, by the 
Rhode Island Locomotive Works. 

The intercepting-valve is the Rhode Island Locomo¬ 
tive Works patent. 

Figs. 66 and 67 illustrate the construction and 
show the operation of the intercepting-valve. Fig. 66 
shows a front section of the intercepting-valve at ports 
d and e ; also a view of a portion of receiver with the 
exhaust-valve. Fig. 67 shows a side section of in¬ 
tercepting-valve while running compound, and Fig. 68 
shows same while running simple. A (in Figs. 65, 66, 
and 67) is the intercepting-valve casing. B is the re- 
ducing-valve. C (in Fig. 67) is the oil dashpot. D (in 
Figs. 65 and 66) is a pipe from main steam-pipe to in¬ 
tercepting-valve. E is the receiver, and F is the ex¬ 
haust-valve ; a , b, and c (in Figs. 67 and 68) show the 
intercepting-valve pistons ; d , port from D , through A ; 
e y port from A into the reducing-valve B\ f (in Figs. 
67 and 68), port from A into passage to low-pressure 
steam-chest; m, exhaust-valve lever; and 0 , ports 
through exhaust-valve and seat. 

This device operates as follows, the intercepting- 
valve being in any position (as in Fig. 67), and the ex¬ 
haust-valve closed (as in Fig. 67) and the throttle open : 

Boiler-steam will pass to the high-pressure cylinder, 
in the usual manner, and also through pipe D into the 
intercepting-valve A , causing the piston to move into 
the position shown in Fig. 68. In this position the 
receiver is closed to the low-pressure cylinder by the 
piston C f and steam from D passes through ports d and 


COMPOUND PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE . 1 29 

e and reducing-valve B into the low-pressure steam- 
chest, the pressure being reduced from boiler-pressure, 
in the ratio of the cylinder areas. The piston a , b, c 
is so proportioned that it will automatically change to 
the compound position shown in Fig. 67, when a pre¬ 
determined pressure in the receiver ii has been reached 
by exhausts from the high-pressure cylinder. The 
engine thus starts with steam in both cylinders, and 
automatically changes to compound at a desired re¬ 
ceiver-pressure. 

The engine may be changed from the compound sys¬ 
tem to the simple at any time, at the will of the engi¬ 
neer, by opening the valve F connecting the receiver to 
the exhaust-pipe, allowing the exhausts from the high- 
pressure cylinder to escape through the nozzle in the 
usual manner. 

The exhaust-valve F is operated as follows : The lever 
m, which rotates the exhaust-valve F , is connected by a 
rod to a handle in cab. To run compound, place lever 
m, as shown in Fig. 67, which closes ports 0. To run 
simple, place lever 1 n, as shown in Fig. 68, the ports 0 
opening E to exhaust. 

It is obvious that, in case of bad conditions of start¬ 
ing, the engine may be operated as a simple one at the 
will of the engineer by opening the exhaust-valve before 
starting, and that upon its closure the piston a , b, c 
will automatically take the compound position shown 
in Fig. 67. 


130 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 



Intercepting-valve for Compound Engines. 



















































































































RHODE ISLAND COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 13 I 


ACCIDENTS WITH THE RHODE ISLAND COMPOUND 
AND INTERCEPTING-VALVE. 

When a valve-rod of the low-pressure engine is 
broken or disconnected, how should the engine be pre¬ 
pared to be brought in? 

The valve on low-pressure side should be put in the 
centre of the seat covering the ports on that side, then 
open the exhaust-valve in receiver to exhaust-nozzle ; 
run with the high-pressure engine disconnected main 
as for simple engine on low-pressure side. 

Why does not the live steam from the reducing-valve 
escape into the receiver and from there into the atmos¬ 
phere ? 

On account of the receiver having no pressure in it, 
the intercepting-valve remains closed to the receiver, 
holding the live steam in the low-pressure steam-chest. 

When a main-rod is broken or disconnected on the 
low-pressure side, what must be done? 

Do the same as for a broken valve-rod. 

When a valve-rod is broken or a main-rod must be 
taken down on the high-pressure side, what should be 
done in this case to bring the engine in ? 

The steam-valve on high-pressure side should be put 
in the centre of the seat covering the ports, and run 
with low-pressure side. 

How does the live steam get into the low-pressure 
steam-chest ? 

Through the reducing and intercepting valve, the 
latter valve confining the steam within the low-pressure 
steam-chest. 


132 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


If the piston-head of intercepting-valve that closes 
the receiver to low-pressure steam-chest should be 
broken or cracked, how could the engine be run with¬ 
out using in the low-pressure cylinder live steam, or 
having an excessive back-pressure on high-pressure 
piston-head ? 

By taking off the back-head of the intercepting-valve 
oil-cylinder, and putting a block in, pushing the inter¬ 
cepting-valve to the position for compounding, putting 
on the cylinder-head, and screwing tight against the 
block. 

Why cannot the exhaust-valve in receiver be opened 
and the engine run as a high-pressure engine? 

On account of the hole in intercepting-valve letting 
the live steam escape into the atmosphere from the 
low-pressure steam-chest. 

What would be the effect if the middle piston-head 
of intercepting-valve was cracked or broken out ? 

The live steam would move intercepting-valve to the 
non-compound position, closing the receiver, and ad¬ 
mitting live steam to the low-pressure cylinder. This 
would form a heavy back-pressure against the high- 
pressure piston-head. 

What should be done then to overcome this back¬ 
pressure ? 

Open the exhaust-valve in receiver and run as a high- 
pressure engine. The intercepting-valve must be closed 
in this case, or live steam will pass out into the exhaust- 
pipe through the receiver. 

How should the engine be run with a broken or 
cracked receiver ? 


COMPOUND PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE. 


133 


By opening the exhaust in receiver and running as a 
high-pressure engine. 

Disconnect for other breaks as for a simple engine. 

A COMPOUND PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE. 

The accompanying illustration is from a photograph 
of an 8-wheel compound engine recently built by the 
Pittsburgh Locomotive Works. It is of the two- 
cylinder type, and has the starting-valve patented by 
Mr. Henry F. Colvin of Philadelphia. With this the 
engine can be worked as a compound, or steam can be 
admitted directly into the low-pressure cylinder at the 
will of the engineer. In the latter case the valve ad¬ 
mitting steam from the boiler acts as a reducing-valve, 
in order to equalize the force exerted in the two cyl¬ 
inders. 

Figs. 70 and 71 show the general construction of the 
starting gear and intercepting-valve of the Pittsburgh 
compound locomotives. This gear is generally placed 
on the cylinder saddle, and is so arranged that the 
engineer, by moving the lever in the cab, can open an 
independent exhaust for the high-pressure cylinder 
through the passage, Fig. 71, to the stack. When it is 
desired to run compound the lever is again moved and 
the intercepting-valve is open. In Fig. 70 the inter¬ 
cepting and reducing valves are shown when in the 
position to work compound. 

In this system steam from the steam-pipe in the high- 
pressure cylinder saddle passes to the reducing-valve 
through a small passage shown in Figs. 70 and 71. 
When the reducing-valve is permitted to open, as it is 



CO 

M 

o 

/■> 

Pi 

O 

w 

o 

£ 

t/. CM 
"C 

(4 

§ 

> 


o 

O -C 

w 

u~> 

§ 

LO , 

C 

' t4 

u 

c 

hJ 

CM ^ 
1— 

1-1 > 

E 

£ a 

u 

u 


£ 'v £ / 
E > c -C 
PQ ►" “ C 

CO __ SZ ~ 

H re C 

£ eg ^ 

Oh 

w 

X 

H 


> 

a 


r>. 

h 

. V) 


V V 

E 

m 

<L> V 
JZ 

co & 

w~ 

z 

CA c 

5 

* > 

z 

oc-c 

w 

-ajQ 

Pi 


(4 

-C O 

o 

£ ,_ 

z 

(4 

CO 

CO 

C ^ , 
> £ 

< 

•— a . 

ex 

i_ .— 

CQ 

Q 


Z 


E 

< 

O 


a. 

C/j* (A ^ 

*-■ 

<L> a; 

O 

x xz J 
a o ” 

u 

c c ^ 


<u ~ 

= ^ 5 

rt >, C 

(hML- 
























PITTSBURGH COMPOUND PASSENGER ENGINE. 13 $ 








































































































































































































































































136 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


in Fig. 71 by the removal of the intercepting-valve to 
the right, steam passes directly through the reducing- 
valve, as shown by the arrows from the high-pressure 
steam-pipe to the receiver, thence to the low-pressure 
cylinder. The amount of reduction of pressure by the 
reducing-valve depends upon the ratio of the areas of 
the piston of the reducing-valve and the area of the 
valve itself. 

When the engine is to be run compound the engineer 
forces the intercepting-valve back to the position shown 
in Fig. 70 by means of the rod which is connected to a 
lever in the cab. The movement of the intercepting- 
valve to the left forces the reducing-valve to its seat, as 
shown in Fig. 70, and permits the high-pressure cylinder 
to exhaust into the receiver. When in the non-com¬ 
pound position, shown in Fig. 71, the high-pressure 
cylinder exhausts directly to the atmosphere, as indi¬ 
cated. 

ACCIDENTS TO PITTSBURGH COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE 
AND INTERCEPTING VALVE. 

When a main-rod is broken or disconnected on the 
low-pressure side, what should be done to run engine 
to end of trip ? 

The low-pressure steam-valve must be put in centre 
of seat covering the ports on that side, the inter¬ 
cepting-valve pulled back-opening the exhaust from 
high-pressure cylinder to the stack ; run in with high- 
pressure side. 

When a valve-rod is broken or taken down on low- 
pressure side, what should be done in this case ? 


PITTSBURGH COMPOUND PASSENGER ENGINE. 13 / 


Do same as for a broken main-rod, also blocking 
cross-head and taking down main-rod, and run in with 
high-pressure side. 

When the intercepting-valve is pulled back, opening 
the high-pressure to stack, does live steam get into the 
low-pressure steam-chest ? 

Steam passes through the reducing-valve into re¬ 
ceiver and low-pressure steam-chest. 

When a main-valve stem or rod is broken or taken 
down on the high pressure side, what should be done 
in order to bring the engine in ? 

The steam-valve on that side should be put in centre 
of seat covering the ports, the intercepting-valve 
pulled back, which opens the reducing-valve, admitting 
live steam into receiver and low-pressure steam-chest, 
do the same for a broken main-rod, and run in with low- 
pressure side. 

If the reducing-valve was broken or a piece broken 
out, would it interfere with the working of the engine? 

No. The engine can be run as a high-pressure 
engine, putting the intercepting-valve in the position 
as a non-compound, but the engine can be run as a 
compound by putting the intercepting-valve in the 
compounding position. The end or head of intercept¬ 
ing-valve has rings sprung in it ; this will prevent the 
live steam from getting into receiver or low-pressure 
steam-chest. 

If the front head of intercepting-valve was broken 
or cracked, what would be the effect on the engine 
when starting ? 

If the intercepting-valve was put in the non-com¬ 
pound position, as when starting or running as a high- 


138 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

pressure engine, the live steam escapes into the atmos¬ 
phere, causing the engine to be weak on that side. 

Can the engine be used as a high-pressure engine to 
start with in this condition ? 

If the break or crack is large enough, the intercepting- 
valve can be pushed ahead until the back-head covers 
the exhaust-port to stack. This will permit the live 
steam from reducing-valve to pass over into low-press¬ 
ure steam-chest through the receiver. The intercepting- 
valve after a couple of revolutions of driver can be put 
in the compounding position closing the reducing- 
valve, and the engine run as a compound. 

When a piece is broken out of front end of back- 
head of intercepting-valve, can the engine be run with 
both sides? 

The engine can be run by putting intercepting-valve 
in the compound position, although the power of low- 
pressure cylinder would be reduced in proportion to 
the amount of steam escaping into stack through 
broken head. 

How can the engine be run as a high-pressure engine 
when a piece is broken out of back-head of intercept¬ 
ing-valve ? 

By putting the valve in the non-compound position, 
and, driving a plug in the port leading from end of 
valve to the other. (The purpose of the port is to 
equalize the pressure on valve, so that it can be moved 
by hand.) 

If the receiver was broken or cracked very badly, 
what should be done in this case ? 

The reducing-valve bound to its seat, the intercept¬ 
ing-valve put in the non-compound position, the low- 


brooks Compound locomotive. 139 

pressure side disconnected as for a broken main-rod, 
run with the high-pressure side. 

How can the reducing-valve be held to the seat 
when the intercepting-valve is away from it? 

By taking off the collar on the end of reducing-valve 
and putting thick washers on ; then put collar on and 
screw up tight-binding reducing-valve to seat. 

What effect has a receiver which is very badly 
cracked or broken on the engine? 

It destroys the draught, preventing the engine from 
steaming, and is liable to cause a back draught and 
burn the fireman. 

This applies to any engine using a receiver in front 
end. 

Disconnect as for a simple engine for other breaks. 

THE BROOKS TWO-CYLINDER COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE, 

built by the Brooks Locomotive Works, under patents 
issued to Mr. John Player, Mechanical Engineer of 
the Brooks Locomotive Works. The notable features 
of Mr. Player’s patents are shown in the accompany¬ 
ing illustrations. 

Referring to Fig. 72, it will be seen that a novel form 
of receiver has been adopted, and that the combined 
intercepting and reducing valve is placed in the smoke- 
box on the right-hand side of the engine. The 
course of the steam is so clearly indicated in Fig. 72 
that further description of the general arrangement of 
the engine is unnecessary. The intercepting and re¬ 
ducing valve is shown in greater detail and in two 
positions in Figs. 75 and 76. The position shown in 



140 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


Fig. 75 is that which the valve occupies when the en¬ 
gine is working as a compound. Suppose that the 


Fig. 72._The Brooks Two cylinder Compound Locomotive 

(Cross-seciion.) 




Fxg. 73._The Brooks Two-cylinder Compound Locomotive. 

(Plan.) 

throttle is opened when the valve is in this position 

























































































































BROOKS COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 


HI 

live steam enters by the pipe J, and pressing on the 
end of the reducing-valve G, opens it, and passes thence 



p IG _ t he Brooks Two-cylinder Compound Locomotive. 

(Longitudinal Section through Low-pressure Cylinder.) 

through the opening (6) and the cored space in the 
reducing-valve, and acts upon the bach of the inter- 





































































I42 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

cepting-valve E f closing it against its seat E'. The 
valve would then occupy the position shown in Fig. 76. 
When in this position steam flows through the open¬ 
ings (3) into the low-pressure end of the receiver, and 
thence to the low-pressure steam-chest and cylinder. 
The pressure of the steam thus admitted to the low- 
pressure steam-chest is regulated by the relative areas 



Fig. 75. —The Brooks Two-cylinder Compound Locomotive. 

of the two ends of the reducing-valve. Under these 
circumstances steam from the high-pressure cylinder 
is exhausted into the closed receiver until the back¬ 
pressure in the receiver is approximately equal to that 
of the steam being admitted directly to the low-press¬ 
ure side. When the pressure on the high-pressure 
side reaches this point approximately, the intercepting 
valve E is forced open, and by its first movement 
closes the outlet of the reducing-valve at G 4 , thus 






























































BROOKS COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 


143 



Reducing-valve open. 


Fig. 76. —The Brooks Two-cylinder Compound Locomotive 

Intercepting-valve. 



Fig. 77. —The Brooks Two-cylinder Compound Locomotive 

Intercepting-valve. 












































































































































144 LOCOMOTIVE MECMAJV/SM AND ENGINEERING. 


closing off the direct supply of steam to the low-press* 
ure side. The difference in area between the large 
end of the intercepting-valve and the small end of the 
reducine-valve is then sufficient to enable the receiver- 
pressure to remove both valves further to the left, as 
shown in the illustrations, and to close the reducing- 
valve, thus shutting off the direct supply of boiler 
steam to the low-pressure cylinder. It will be seen 
that this valve is, as has been mentioned, a combined 
reducing and intercepting valve. Mr. Player has 
patented several other forms of this valve, one of them 
provided with springs for regulating the action in 
opening and closing, and also providing for placing the 
valve in the cylinder saddle. Fig. 77 shows the posi¬ 
tion of valves with throttle closed and receiver empty. 

Another feature of this system of compound loco¬ 
motives is the arrangement of regulating valves, which 
is shown by Fig. 74, and at P and Q in Fig. 72. The 
object of these valves, which, it will be seen, are oper¬ 
ated similarly to the ordinary cylinder-cocks, is, in the 
first place, to provide an outlet for the exhaust-steam 
from the high-pressure cylinder when it is desired to 
move the engine a short distance, as in switching, etc., 
and, secondly, to provide a means of freeing the re¬ 
ceiver and steam, and so taking all pressure off the 
low-pressure piston, when it is desired to stop the en¬ 
gine within a short distance, as in coupling to trains, 
etc. 


BROOKS COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 


145 


ACCIDENTS TO THE BROOKS COMPOUND ENGINE AND 

INTERCEPTING-VALVE. 

When a main-rod is broken or disconnected on the 
high-pressure side, how can the engine be run to end 
of trip? 

By running with the low-pressure side. 

What should be done in the way of disconnecting in 
this case? 

Cover the ports on the high-pressure side with the 
valve (and using live steam in the low-pressure cylin¬ 
der to run with). 

How does the steam get into the low-pressure steam- 
chest ? 

Through the reducing-valve and intercepting-valve. 

Why does not the steam get into the high-pressure 
steam-chest and receiver ? 

On account of the live steam in intercepting-valve 
holding that valve to the seat closing the receiver. 

For a broken valve-rod or when disconnected do the 
same as for a main-rod taken down on that side (dis¬ 
connecting main-rod). 

When a main-rod or valve-rod is broken or discon¬ 
nected on the low-pressure side, what should be done 
to run the engine ? 

The low-pressure valve must be moved back to clear 
exhaust-port on that side, the piston - head blocked 
securely in the back end of cylinder. 

How can the intercepting-valve be kept open in this 
case. There must be pressure enough in the receiver 
to keep the intercepting-valve open. 


146 LOCOMOTIVE MECEAJV/SM AND ENGINEERING. 

The way to have a pressure in receiver would be to 
have the exhaust-port opening very small on the low- 
pressure side. 

Is there any other way of providing an outlet for the 
exhaust-steam from high-pressure cylinder? 

There are regulating-valves tapped in the receiver- 
passages in cylinder-saddles, but these are not large 
enough to provide an outlet when pulling cars for any 
distance ; also, the exhaust will be lost on the fire. 

How can the intercepting-valve be made inopera¬ 
tive ? 

By putting a blind-washer in the steam-pipe that 
joins the reducing-valve chamber. This will prevent 
any steam from getting into the intercepting-valve to 
operate it. 

When the low-pressure steam-valve is moved all the 
way back in steam-chest, will it open all the ports ? 

The valve is liable to drop off its seat in any engine 
whose seat is higher than the face of receiving-ports > 
and this will open all ports ; but if this should happen, 
the pressure would be on each side of piston-head. 
When the intercepting valve is made inoperative, the 
low-pressure exhaust-port should be opened full. 

When from any cause the intercepting-valve is 
broken so as to leave an opening into the receiver, 
how could the engine be run as a compound ? 

Put a blind-washer at joint where the small steam- 
pipe joins intercepting-valve; this will prevent live 
steam from getting into receiver. 

Do the same for a broken reducing-valve. 

When a receiver is broken or badly cracked, what 
should be done ? 


BROOKS TANDEM COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE . 147 


The proper way would be to disconnect the high- 
pressure side and run in with low-pressure side, using 
steam through the reducing-valve. 

Disconnect for other broken parts as for a simple 
engine. 

BROOKS TANDEM COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 

The Tandem Compound Locomotive is now in actual 
use in this country, and the system which is described 
contains the patents of J. Player, Mechanical Engineer 
of the Brooks Locomotive Works. The longitudinal 
section, Fig. 79, shows the cylinder valves and receiver, 
also piston-heads, ports, and method of packing be¬ 
tween the two cylinders. The valves are of two types. 
The low-pressure valve is a slide-valve having the usual 
balance-plate, but in this case the plate is made as 
shown in Fig. 80, this being on account of the rod that 
is pivoted on top of the low-pressure valve-yoke. The 
high -pressure valve is a piston-valve, being hollow. The 
live steam is confined between the two heads of valve, 
packing-rings are sprung in heads to make it tight. As 
will be understood, this valve acts directly opposite to 
that of a common slide-valve in this way, that the lap 
of the valve is in the inside of heads, or what would be 
the exhaust side of slide-valve, and exhausts the steam 
from each end instead of into the centre of valve, as 
with the slide-valve. 

The object of having the valve hollow is to allow the 
exhaust-steam to pass through valve into receiver. By 
referring to Fig. 79 it will be seen that the valves are in 
open communication with each other, the valve-cham- 



Fig. 78.—Brooks Tandem Compound Consolidation Freight Locomotive. 


































Brooks tandem compound locomotive. 149 


bers acting as a receiver. In the receiver proper is a 
cross-shaft, on which rotates a rocker-arm ; to the upper 
arm is connected the rod, which is fastened to the low- 
pressure valve-yoke. To the lower arm is fastened the 
rod, which is attached to high-pressure valve. The 
usual yoke surrounds the low-pressure, valve having its 





Receiver 




(.....A 






Dia. L.P. Cyl. 22 
“ H.P. “ i3 
Stroke 26 


H.P. Valve Trav. &) 

L.P. “ “ 7 fMax. 

Cyl. Ratio-/-2.87 

Vacuum Valve 


'Relief H.P. Cyl. Live Steam 
Valve 

Exhaust to 4 - P.'Cyl. Ex', from H.P. Cyl. 

Stack Brooks Tandem 

Compound 

Fig. 79. 

stem connected to the valve-rod. The purpose of hav¬ 
ing the rocker-arm is twofold : First, that by having the 
arms of different lengths there will be a difference in 
the travel of the valves, which is a very good point in 
compounding. When the low-pressure valve travelling 
7 inches maximum, the high-pressure valve-travel is 
4 inches maximum, so that when using a short cut-off 

























































































































































150 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

in the high-pressure cylinder you have a wide opening 
in the low-pressure ports. Second, the valves must 
travel in opposite directions on account of the high- 
pressure steam being confined between the head.^ of 
high -pressure valve, and by using the rocker-arm * this 



is accomplished. The action of valves would be as 
follows: When the low-pressure valve moves to left 
of Fig. 79 to uncover the front port of the low-pressure 
cylinder, the high-pressure valve would move to the 

hg-arm , 


* Builders term, r ever si 








































































































brooks tandem compound locomotive. 151 

right and uncover the front of steam-port, and at the 

same time open back-port of high-pressure cylinder to 
receiver. 

The course of the steam would be as follows : when 
high-pressure valve opens, the steam enters cylinder, 
exerting its power against the high-pressure piston- 



head. The steam that has expanded in the other end of 
high -pressure cylinder would pass out the back-port into 
the receiver, from there into the low-pressure steam- 
chest proper, and into the low-pressure cylinder through 
the front steam-port, which would be open. The steam 
in the other end of low-pressure cylinder would pass 
















































152 LO COMO TIVE ME CHA N1SM A ND ENGINEERING. 

out the back-port under the valve into the stack, as 
with the simple engine. 

There is provided a starting-valve on this as on all 
compounds. This valve is attached to the side of 
low-pressure steam-chest, and steam-pipe that leads to 
the high-pressure steam-chest. This valve is simple in 
construction. Fig. 80 shows the construction and posi¬ 
tion of valve when closed. Fig. 81 shows the position 
when open .at the time of starting. The valve-casing 
is bolted to low-pressure steam-chest, and in the lower 
end of casing is a seat against which the valve, which 
is a wing-valve, closes. Attached to this valve is a 
stem which extends up to the top of casing; this valve 
has tw T o seats, as will be seen : the upper seat is in 
contact with valve when it is closed ; rings are sprung 
in the extension of valve to keep it from leaking 
when valve proper is open. To the upper end of the 
valve-stem is fastened a head having two horizontal 
openings through it. Between this head and a shoulder 
in the casing is placed a strong helical spring. The 
purpose of this spring is to close the valve. Passing 
through the openings in the head on the stem are 
two rods of different widths vertically, similar to a 
cylinder-cock rod. These rods are connected to the 
reversing-arm of lifting-shaft. The operation is as fol¬ 
lows : When the reverse-lever is put all the w r ay down 
on the quadrant, as when starting a train, the rods are 
pushed forward in the head on starting-valve stem, the 
wider part of rod enters the opening, and forces the head 
and spring, down. The live steam then opens the valve 
and admits steam into the low-pressure steam-chest, 
at the same time reducing the steam-pressure due to the 


BROOKS TANDEM COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE. 153 


difference in area of the two sides of the valve proper. 
When the reverse-lever is put back to the 14th notch, 
the wide part of rod is withdrawn from the head on 
valve-stem, the spring will close valve and compound¬ 
ing begins. This action takes place in forward or back 
gear. 

ACCIDENTS TO THE BROOKS TANDEM COMPOUND. 

When a main-rod is broken or taken down, what 
should be done in way of preparing the engine to be 
run in ? 

The valves on the side disconnected should be put in 
the centre of their seats-covering all steam-ports, and 
run with the good side. 

When a valve-rod breaks, do the same as for main- 
rod disconnected. 

If a front-head of high pressure cylinder is broken 
out, what should be done ? 

The valves on that side put in centre of the seats 
covering the ports, main-rod taken down, cross-head 
blocked, and run in with the other side. 

Could the engine be run without taking down the 
main-rod ? 

By taking off the front head of valve-chamber and 
disconnecting the high-pressure valve-rod, putting the 
valve in centre of seat covering the ports, putting a 
block in the centre of valve so as to carry the rod to 
clear valve, the reverse-lever put in full forward notch, 
this will open the starting-valve. Disconnect the rod 
from the reverse-arm : this will prevent the starting, 
valve from being closed when the reverse-lever is pulled 
up. The engine will be running as a compound on 
one side, and the low-pressure cylinder will act as high- 


154 locomotive mechanism and engineering. 

pressure engine on the broken side; this shows what 
can be done in an extreme case. Care must be taken to 
keep the high-pressure cylinder oiled ; this may be done 
through the cylinder-cocks or open end of cylinder. 

What could be done in case of a broken receiver ? 

If badly broken, a blind-washer could be put in joint 
where the steam-pipe joins the high-pressure steam- 
chest, disconnecting main-rod and blocking cross-head. 

If the rocker or high-pressure valve reversing-arm 
should break off, what should be done ? 

Put valve in centre of seat covering all ports, take 
down main-rod, block cross-head, and run in with other 
side. 

How could you cover all ports in this case? 

Cover the low-pressure ports by the reverse-lever, 
then take off the front head of high-pressure valve- 
chamber, put that valve over ports, and put on head. 

How can the high-pressure valve be held in position 
when disconnected from the rocker-arm? 

By cutting a block shape, putting it through 

the valve, and letting it drop down over the ends of 
valve, the one end abutting against the rock-shaft in 
receiver, and the other end held by the head being 
screwed up against it. 

In any break in which the valves can be made to 
cover the ports, the quickest way is to disconnect on 
that side and run with good side. As both sides of an 
engine are constructed alike, these questions apply to 
both. 

In a case where the valves could not be made to 
cover all ports, a blind-washer put in steam-pipe joint 
will prevent steam from getting into valves or cylinders. 


DESCRIPTION OF RICHMOND LOCOMOTIVE . I 55 


DESCRIPTION OF INTERCEPTING-VALVE, RICHMOND 

LOCOMOTIVE AND MACHINE WORKS COMPOUND. 

The various drawings show sections through the low- 
pressure cylinder-saddle, with the valves in their four 
relative positions. 

Fig. 84 shows the position of valves in starting 
automatically, just after the throttle is opened ; 

Fig. 85 shows the same at maximum pressure in 
low pressure steam-chest; 

Fig. 86 shows the position when working compound ; 
and 

Fig. 87 shows position when working simple. 

The high-pressure cylinder exhausts into a receiver, 
which is placed inside the smoke-box and opens into the 
chamber F. The intercepting-valve, as shown at 
V in the several views, has a piston on its outer end 
which acts as an air dash-pot, preventing any slamming 
of the valve. Around the stem of this valve is a 
sleeve L , which has an axial movement on the 
stem, and acts as an admission- and reducing-valve to 
the low-pressure steam-chest when starting and when 
working simple. Valve H is a plain bevel-seated 
winged valve, and is called the emergency-valve, as by 
its use the engineer can, at will, operate as a simple 
engine. 

When starting, steam from the boiler goes to the 
high-pressure cylinder in the ordinary way, and also to 
the port C through a two-inch steam-pipe connected 
to the dry pipe. When the throttle is opened, no 
matter in what position the valves stand, there is no 


LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING 




V 

c 


X 


Pi 

Pi 

J 

H 

in 

*5 

U 

u 

u 

f* 

o 

tL, 

c 

£ 

o 

c-, 

s 

o 

u 

Q 

£ 

o 

2 

£ 

u 

c 5 

I 

<N 

CO 

6 

HH 

pH 


fc o 

J w 

X 


CO 

£ 

O 

O 

o_ 

o' 

co 


.C 

JOt! 

"5 

£ 

ci 

o 

H 


a. O' 

* H— 

X 

t/j 

v- 

<v 

•o 

c 

to 

U 


<U 

o 

E 

rt 

Q 


ot 

O 

o 
. o 

^ HH 

VC ^ 

^ c o 

* vO 

If) 

£ “ *- 

»- u 

> <u 
’£ .£ o 
Q >- CQ 
Q 

V*-l 

° c ° 

O '-■ 
«J 1) 

*-» 4-» +-» 

<u a; 

E ,w> E 

03 OJ 03 

O^Q 
















Richmond Locomotive and Machine Works Compound 


DESCRIPTION OF RICHMOND LOCOMOTIVE. I 57 


























Fit031 DRY FIFE 


158 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 



Position in Stapting automatically. 




















































































































Position in Starting at Maximum pressure in L. P, Steam Chest. 


DESCRIPTION OF RICHMOND LOCOMOTIVE. 159 










































































































































LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING 



nsaanxo d’l 
ox snrssvx 


ijam, 


////////////// 

/////////////’ 



v/mm 

. A., ' 

Lt 



Position when working Compound. 

Fig. 86. 


































































































































































POSITION WHEN WORKING *S SIMPLE ENGINE. 

Fig. 87. 


DESCRIPTION OF RICHMOND LOCOMOTIVE , 


l6l 



© 

fc 

to 

§ 


S' 


lu 


U © 
fa© 
to 


rf-STEAM PIPE 








































































































162 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


pressure in the receiver F , and the pressure on the 
shoulder E of the sleeve L moves the sleeve and 
valve V to the right, closing the receiver, and letting 
steam past the shoulder E into the low-pressure steam- 
chest G , as shown in Fig. 84. 

Now, since the area of the end B of the sleeve 
Z, shown in Fig. 85, is say twice that of the 
shoulder E, half of the boiler-pressure will move the 
sleeve L to the left, cutting off steam through port 
C , and thus equalizing the work in both cylinders, 
since the reduced pressure is thus maintained in the 
low-pressure steam-chest by the reciprocating action of 
the sleeve. After say one and one half revolutions 
the pressure accumulates in the receiver F , due to 
the exhaust from the high-pressure cylinder, and, acting 
against the large face of valve V, moves this valve 
to the left, carrying the sleeve with it, thus opening a 
straight connection between the high-pressure exhaust 
and the low-pressure steam-chest, and at the same 
time permanently cutting off live steam from port 
C, as shown in Fig. 86. 

In starting on grades, or when exerting maximum 
power, the engineer can move the three-way cock in 
the cab, letting boiler-steam behind the piston on the 
emergency-valve H, and holding it open against its 
spring. This exhausts the small cavity J, in which 
the pressure is equalized with the receiver through 
holes in the rear end of valve V, and then the valve, 
being unbalanced, moves with the sleeve L in¬ 
stantly to the right, assisted by steam-pressure on the 
shoulder E of the sleeve. The high-pressure cylin¬ 
der has now a separate exhaust around the end of 


BREAKING DOWN OF RICHMOND COMPOUND. 163 


valve V } through valve H, into the main exhaust, 
since the intercepting-valve remains closed, due to no 
accumulated pressure in the receiver F. The low- 
pressure steam-chest then gets reduced-pressure steam 
direct from the boiler through port C and reducing- 
valve Z, as shown in Fig. 87. 

Except when working simple, the valves act entirely 
automatically. The lubricator to the low-pressure 
cylinder enters port A and thus ensures constant 
lubrication to the intercepting- and reducing-valve. 

Owing to the small area of port C , and the con¬ 
tracted exhaust through valve H the engine de¬ 
velops less power as a simple engine than as a com¬ 
pound, at a speed of over say eight or ten miles an 
hour, and thus the runner is compelled to work com¬ 
pound. 

.Should either side break down, the emergency-valve 
can be opened, and the engine brought in on one side 
like an ordinary simple engine. 

BREAKING DOWN OF RICHMOND COMPOUND. 

Q. What should be done when a main-rod is broken 
or taken down on H. P. side ? 

A. The valve should be put in centre of seat on 
broken side and clamped fast ; piston-head blocked in 
back end of cylinder by cross-head in guides; run in 
with L. P. side. 

Q. How can steam begotten into the L. P. cylinder? 

A. By the starting-and reducing-valves on L. P. side, 
which will act the same as when running a simple 
engine. 


164 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

Q. Would there be any pressure in receiver when 
running in this manner? 

A. No ; not as long as steam did not leak past the 
H. P. valve or the intercepting-valve ; the emergency- 
valve could be opened occasionally to exhaust any 
pressure that might accumulate in receiver, so as not 
to cause the intercepting-valve to open, thus prevent¬ 
ing live steam from entering the receiver from the 
boiler. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken valve- 
stem on H. P. side ? 

A. Do the same as for broken or taken down main- 
rod ; come in with L. P. side. 

O. What should be done in case the main-rod on 
the L. P. side was taken down from any cause ? 

A. Block valves in centre of seat on that side ; put 
piston head in back-end of cylinder ; block cross-head; 
open emergency-valve of intercepting-valve. 

Q. Why should this be done? 

A. In order to let the exhaust steam from H. P. 
side escape into main exhaust-passage ; otherwise the 
exhaust would back up in the receiver. 

Q. What would be the effect if this happened? 

A. This would cause back pressure on the H. P. pis¬ 
ton-head, reduce the power, and if pressure became 
great enough would open the intercepting-valve on the 
L. P. side. 

0 . What should be done in case of broken valve- 
stem on L. P. side ? 

A. Same as for main-rod taken down ; run in with 
H. P. side. 

O. When broken down on L. P. side, how is it pos- 


BREAKING DOWN OF RICHMOND COMPOUND. 165 

sible to prevent live steam from getting into L. P. 
steam-chest ? 

A. By blocking the intercepting-valve open, thus 
holding the starting- and reducing-valves closed. 

Q. How can the intercepting-valve be kept open ? 

A. By putting a block behind the air or dash-pot 
piston-head. 

Q. If the intercepting-valve remained open, due to 
sticking from any cause, and would not act automati¬ 
cally, what would be the proper way to try to close it? 

A. Open the emergency-valve; if this would not 
close it, tap on end of stem projecting through dash- 
pot cylinder. 

Q. What else would cause the intercepting-valve to 
fail to close? 

A. The starting- and reducing-valves might stick, thus 
preventing live steam getting between that valve and 
seat to cause it to open and close intercepting valve. 

Q. What should be done? 

A. Same as for intercepting-valve not working. 

Q. If a piece were broken out of intercepting-valve 
between the L. P. cylinder and receiver, would it 
open ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Why, and what would be the effect ? 

A. The pressure would act on each side of valve 
having the largest area ; also live steam from reducing- 
valve would flow into the receiver until the intercept¬ 
ing-valve closed the reducing-valve. 

Q. Would the engine operate as a compound engine ? 

A. Not until the reducing-valve was closed. 

Q. What should be done to make the engine operate 


1 66 LOCOMOTJVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


as a compound in case the intercepting-valve did not 
close the reducing-valve ? 

A. Pull the intercepting-valve open, thus closing the 
reducing- and starting-valves. 

Q. How could this valve be held open, if necessary? 

A. By putting clamp on stem projecting through 
dash-pot cylinder close to the head. 

Q. Could the L. P. side be operated as a simple 
engine if the H. P. side were broken down, when a 
piece was broken out of intercepting-valve? 

A. Yes ; but the receiver would be filled with live 
steam. 

Q. Would it be possible to operate this engine com¬ 
pound with the emergency-valve broken out? 

A. Yes, by taking out broken valve and putting in 
wooden plug in the valve-seat, and putting on the 
gland as when valve was in position, letting the end of 
plug bear against gland. 

Q. If the receiver was cracked so as to cause an ex¬ 
cessive back draught, what should be done? 

A. Would open emergency valve and run as a simple 
engine. 

Q. Why would you do this ? 

A. To see if relieving the pressure in receiver would 
lessen the effect of back draught. 

Q. If not, what could be done ? 

A. Disconnect H. P. side and run in with L. P. 
side. 

Q. How long will this engine operate as a simple 
engine ? 

A. As long as the emergency valve is kept open. 


THE READING'S SINGLE-DRIPPER LOCOMOTIVE. 167 


THE READING’S SINGLE-DRIVER LOCOMOTIVE—FOR 
THE ROYAL BLUE TRAINS.* 

This engine’s drivers are equalized with the trading- 
wheels by a nice system of underhung springs. This 
makes her, in service, something similar to an eight¬ 
wheeler, so far as the track is concerned. 

Ample journal-bearings make the engine run cool ; 
the driving-box and that on the trading-wheel are each 
12 inches long. 

The dome is placed over the fire-box and behind the 
cab ; this is unusual, but gives room in the cab, allows 
the men to see, and prevents the surge of water ahead 
at stops from entering the dry pipe to injectors, etc. 
Three 4-inch pops are used—two on the left side of the 
dome and one on the right; one of these is set to pop at 
195 pounds pressure, one at 198, and the third at 200; 
when steam is suddenly shut off, that 8|- X 9 foot fire 
makes all three pops sing at once. 

The cab is wonderfully comfortable ; being in the 
centre of the boiler, there is little vibration, and each 
side is roomy. The throttle is an innovation ; the stem 
coming, as it does, from the dome in the rear of the 
cab, shoves in instead of pulling out, and has a long 
stem running in brackets on top of the boiler. The 
lever is the regulation Baldwin ratchet, but on the 
stem, between the brackets, there is a stiff-coiled 
spring, which is adjusted by a hand-nut ; the tension 
of this spring tends to open the throttle, and can be so 
adjusted that the engineer can handle his valve easily 
without jerking. On the stem outside of the first 


* Photo from Locomotive Engineering. 




168 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 



Photo Furnished by B. L. Wks. Baldwin Locomotive Works Builders. 

Fig. 88.—Philadelphia & Reading R. R. Co .’s Single-driver Locomotive. 





































THE READING'S SINGLE-DRIVER LOCOMOTIVE. 1 69 


bracket a coarse-pitch thread is cut, and a heavy, 
knurled brass nut is placed; when the engineer leaves 
his engine, he can quickly run this nut up to the 
bracket and lock the throttle shut. There are sand¬ 
boxes in the back of the cab to use for backing up, 
provided, as the regular box is, with Leach air sand- 
jets. 

The tires are secured on the drivers by retaining- 
rings ; but an improvement over the Mansell pattern is 
that they are lipped into the wheel centre as well as 
the tire, the rivets merely holding the ring in place. 

The engine and tender are painted royal blue and 
gold-leafed to match the trains hauled, and look very 
handsome. 

Gould couplers and passenger platform-buffers are 
used on the engine both forward and back. 

Both injectors are on the right side ; the blower can 
be worked from either side of the cab or from the fire¬ 
box deck, and there is a steam-gauge and light on the 
rear of fire-box for the benefit of the fireman. 

The driver and trailing-wheel brake-shoes are on the 
rear of the wheel, which plan gives a splendid chance 
to get all the brake apparatus in in nice shape ; the 
push-cylinders are located just back of the guides ; the 
levers are straight, stand vertical, and are fulcrummed 
in the plate-bracket shown just ahead of the driver. 

There is no reach-rod on engines with cab located as 
this one is; the tumbling-shaft arm is simply extended 
up to form a reverse-lever. 

She is a Vauclain compound, and when working the 
hardest at speed makes less noise at the exhaust than 
the injectors do. 


170 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


She has a short smoke-arch, with a vertical netting 
and a variable exhaust-nozzle. The Wootten fire-box 
has a brick bridge-wall at the combustion-chamber. 

The following are the general dimensions of this 
locomotive : 

Gauge of track, 4 ft. 8^ in. 

Cylinders, 13 in. H. P., 22 in. L. P., by 26-in. stroke 

Driver, 84J in. diameter, cast steel. 

Total wheel-base, 22 ft. 9 in. 

R igid wheel-base, 7 ft. 

Wheel-base, engine and tender, 50 ft. 

Weight, in working order, 115,000 lbs. 

Weight on drivers, 48,000 lbs. 

Weight on trailer, 28,000 lbs. 

Weight on truck, 39,000 lbs. 

Limit of height, 14 ft. 3 in. 

Limit of width, 9 ft. 3^ in. 

Boiler, Wootten ; shell, 56 in. diameter at arch, 
straight, made of -f-in. steel; longitudinal seams 
butt-jointed ; circumferential seams, double-riveted ; 
working pressure, 200 lbs. per square inch ; dome over 
fire-box. 

Three hundred and twenty-four tubes, i^in. diameter, 
13 W. G., and 10 ft. 3 in. long. 

Fire-box, 114 in. long by 96 in. wide ; side, back, and 
crown sheets, f- in.; flue-sheet, % in. thick ; water-space, 
3^ in. 

Crown supported by crown bars of inverted T irons, 
set in. above sheet; stay-bolts, i-| in. diameter 
spaced 4 in. between centres. 

Water-tube grates and bars. 

Engine-truck, rigid, centre-bearing ; 36-in. wrought- 


EXPRESS ENGINES FOR PENNSYLVANIA R. R. 171 


iron Vauclain wheels, steel-tired ; journals, 5^- X 10 in. ; 
trailing-wheels, 54^ in., cast steel; journals, 7 X 12 in. 

The valves are 11^ in. diameter, piston pattern; 
drivers (2), 84^- in. diameter outside tires ; centres, 78 
in. ; tires, 3-i- in. thick, 6 in. wide ; journals, 8£ X 12 in.; 
Sellers’ “ ’87 ” injectors, No. io|-; Westinghouse brake 
on drivers, trailer, tender, and train ; 9j-in. pump, air- 
signal, Leach sanders, and U. S. metallic packing. 

The boiler is lagged with magnesia blocks, and all 
the trim is bright iron. 

The tender has a water capacity of 3500 gallons, 
frame of 8-in. channel iron; fitted with water-scoop; 
Boies wrought-iron centre steel-tired wheels ; journals, 
4i X 8 in. 

THE 1895 CLASS “L” EXPRESS ENGINES FOR THE 

PENNSYLVANIA R. R. 

The engraving shows the general appearance of these 
engines. They are fine-looking and fine-working loco¬ 
motives. 

Particular attention has been paid to getting them 
handy and comfortable to the men in the cab. The 
steam- and air-gauges are on a bracket on the corner of 
the Belpaire fire-box, and facing the engineer, who is 
seated at the corner; the engineer’s valve is just below 
them, and the reverse-lever ahead of the runner, on the 
side of the boiler. The throttle-stem enters the head 
and a lever is carried up to top of boiler, which is 
actuated by a crank on a shaft ; this shaft runs to the 
engineer’s side of the boiler, and the throttle-lever is 


172 


LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING 



Fig. 89.— Class “ L” Express Locomotive, Pennsylvania R. R., 1895. 































EXPRESS ENGINES FOR PENNSYLVANIA R. R. I 73 

keyed to it; this lever hangs straight down along the 
boiler side, and the end is turned out for a handle, 
having a ratchet-latch. Everything is within easy 
reach of the runner. The lubricator is on the left side, 
and the feed must be looked after by the fireman. 

The boiler has a 62-inch ring at the smoke-box, then 
a course that is a frustum of a cone, enlarging to 68 
inches ; back of that there is a straight 68-inch course, 
carrying the dome, and behind that a Belpaire fire-box. 
This is 60 inches wide at the rear and across the entire 
top, the sides being rounded out in front to the size of 
the shell, and this bulge runs out to the flat at the rear; 
this gives more room at the rear in the cab. 

The fire-box is 120 inches long and 41^- inches wide, 
fitted for anthracite coal. There are 310 flues ij 
inches diameter. 

The cylinders are 18J X 26 inches ; the valves have a 
6-inch travel, i-J-inch lap outside, and £-inch clearance 
inside. The ports are 20 inches long, if inches wide. 
The drivers are 80 inches diameter, of cast steel. 

A Dean cross-head is used, but made of two pieces 
instead of three. 

The links, hangers, etc., have forged cups where 
ordinary oil-holes are generally used. 

The jacket is steel, painted black, and adds much to 
the “ business ” appearance of the engines. 

They have sand-boxes on top of the boiler. 

The smoke-box door has inside hinges on a swinging 
link, and is bolted up tight all around outside. 

The pistons are fastened into cross-head by a split 
nut, the end of piston being shaped like an axle, the 
nut surrounding it and forcing it into cross-head. 


174 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 

There are no back-boards in the cab; it is open, like 
an eight-wheeler, and the men can see and converse 
with each other. 

Good steps and hand-holds are used ; inside checks 
and branch pipes fastened against the boiler. 

These engines carry 180 pounds of steam-pressure. 

To the bottom of the piston-heads of these engines 
is attached a carrier or shoe. These piston-heads are 
very light, being of the single-web dish type of steel. 
In order to have a perfect-fitting, steam-tight, smooth¬ 
working piston-head, the snap-ring packing is used ; 
and to break the joint and prevent any leakage of 
steam through the opening of the rings the Peacock 
break-joint is used, which has been tested under severe 
usage. The reciprocating parts of these engines were 
reduced to the lightest weight possible. As shown, 
the main and side rods are channeled, making them 
very light and strong. Brakes are provided on the 
engine-trucks. A very good feature is that good steps 
are on the engine and tender. The outlines of these 
engines are very pleasing to the eye, and the centre of 
gravity is high. Taking all into consideration, these 
engines are a leading example of the modern steam 
locomotive in appearance, construction, and operation.* 


* Single-expansion type. 



DESCRIPTION OF DEAA T COMPOUND ENGINE. 1 75 


INTERCEPTING-VALVE FOR COMPOUND ENGINES.* 

The intercepting-valve for compound engines here 
illustrated was designed by F. W. Dean of 53 State 
Street, Boston, Mass. It is in use on engines on the 
Old Colony Railroad and on the Lehigh Valley. To 
the upper side of the casing A is firmly bolted the 
secondary casing B, provided with the inner pendent 
tubular hub B\ which extends into the chamber of the 
lower casing and is bored out to form a cylinder having 
two different diameters, the upper portion being the 
larger. The upper end of the cylinder is closed by a 
cap, connected with which is the pipe D, the upper 
part of which is curved and threaded to receive the 
end of a pipe leading from the interior of the convert¬ 
ing valve ZT, as shown in Fig. 9 °* 

The interior of the casing A is formed with a valve- 
seat for the valve E, which is provided with a tubular 
stem whose outer surface closely fits the smaller bore 
of the hub B'. The bore of the stem is fitted to form 
a steam-tight bearing on the tube D, and it extends 
through the valve, but of somewhat enlarged diameter, 
and is threaded to receive a plug the upper end of 
which is somewhat removed from the lower end of the 
tube D when the valve is raised to its highest position, 
as shown in Fig. 90. On the upper end of the tubular 
valve-stem is screwed a sleeve-like piston, formed with 
two grooves to receive metal packing-rings ; the stem 
is also provided with a pair of packing-rings to work 
in the lower portion of the cylinder B', and has cut 


* Iron Age. 




176 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

through it just below the packing-rings several rectan¬ 
gular or flat-bottomed radial openings, so located rela¬ 
tive to the seating face of the valve and the lower end 
of the pendent tube D that the openings will not begin 
to be uncovered by passing below the lower end of the 
tube until the valve has descended nearly to its seat 
and its outer periphery is partially inclosed by the 
annular raised rib. Surrounding the valve-seat suita¬ 
ble packing-rings make a steam-tight joint between the 
tube D and the valve-stem. 

Live steam direct from the boiler is admitted 
through the pipe F, the upper end of which communi¬ 
cates through the tube-sheet with the steam-space of 
the boiler, as shown in Fig. 91 ; but instead of the 
steam having free access to the chamber through an 
opening of the size of the pipe, the steam is wire-drawn 
through a very small hole in a plug or bushing, as 
shown in Fig. 91. 

The tube D has drilled through it, just below its 
junction with the cap, a small hole, through which 
steam may pass from the interior of the tube to the 
chamber above the piston, to aid in forcing the valve to 
its seat. 

The casing B has formed in its upper part a small 
vent-hole, the lower end of which opens into a groove 
in the piston when in its highest position, and its upper 
end communicates with the annular chamber formed 
in the upper packing-face of the casing B. The cap is 
also provided with a vent-hole extending from the 
under side of its flange or its packing-face to the inte¬ 
rior of the steam passage through the cap and tube, as 
shown in Fig. 90, whereby any steam leaking from the 


DESCRIPTION OF DEAN COMPOUND ENGINE. I 77 



p IG> go . —F. W. Dean Patent Intercepting-valve for Compound 
Engines. (Central Vertical Section, enlarged.) 

























































































































































































































178 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

chamber and passing the lower packing-rings into the 
groove can escape into the tube D , instead of finding 
its way past the upper packing-rings into the chamber 
above the piston. 



Fig. 91.—F. W. Dean Patent Intercepting-valve for Compound 
Engines. (Transverse Vertical Section through Smoke-box.) 


The area of the annular lower end of the piston in 
the upper chamber B' is approximately equal to the 
area of the lower end of the pipe D , so that the press¬ 
ure of steam in the chamber will nearly counterbalance 

































































































DESCRIPTION OF DEAN COMPOUND ENGINE. 1 79 

the pressure of steam in the pipe tending to move the 
valve downward, and so maintain the valve in its ele¬ 
vated position until steam enough has passed through 
the small opening in the upper part of the pipe D into 
the chamber above the piston to overcome the upward 
pressure in the chamber. The valve then moves down¬ 
ward as fast as the steam can pass through the open¬ 
ing until it has nearly reached its seat, when the open¬ 
ings in the valve-stem will permit the escape of steam 
from the pipe D into the chamber A, and the valve 
will seat without jar. 

By admitting the live steam from the boiler to the 
chamber through the small orifice in the bushing of the 
pipe F, the upward movement of the valve E, which is 
started promptly by the steam in the chamber, which 
is substantially at boiler-pressure in its continued up¬ 
ward movement, will be somewhat retarded by the 
restricted supply of steam which can pass through the 
orifice, and as some steam will remain in the chamber 
above the piston, which can escape only as fast as it is 
forced through the orifice into the pipe D, the upward 
movement of the valve will be arrested without slam 
or jar. 

The construction shown and described insures the 
opening of the valve E before the pressure of exhaust- 
steam in the high pressure exhaust passage accummlates 
above the receiver-pressure, and thus relieves the high- 
pressure piston of the early back-pressure, as the valve 
being acted upon by the steam in the chamber at sub¬ 
stantially boiler-pressure is made to open promptly, 
when the converting valve is closed and a passage is 
opened from the interior of the tube D to the atmos- 


ISO LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


phere, and is also opened in advance of an accumulated 
back-pressure on the high-pressure piston. 

The cap is connected by a pipe with the converting- 
valve, and as a consequence it follows that when the 
converting-valve is closed the steam in the tube D is 
free to escape into the open air, and as the converting- 
valve is closed as soon as the high-pressure cylinder 
begins to exhaust, it follows that before the pressure of 
the exhaust can accumulate above receiver-pressure the 
pressure above the valve E will have been relieved and 
the pressure in the chamber will have commenced to 
raise the valve E to open communication to the re¬ 
ceiver. 


CHAPTER XII. 


INJECTORS, SAFETY-VALVES, STEAM GAUGES, ETC. 

THE INJECTOR. 

The injector is a part of the locomotive machine 
that must always be in perfect condition. Any defect 
in it will prevent it from working, and place an engineer 
in a very bad position, as on it he must depend to get 
water into the boiler, for the day of pump-using is past. 

There are usually two injectors on a locomotive, so 
that if one fails the other may be used. The action 
of the injector seems a mystery to many, in regard to 
the manner in which the water is forced into the boiler, 
at or above the steam-pressure which is working it. 

The operation is as follows : 

Steam under pressure acquires a very high velocity 
in escaping through a tube. Then the steam passing 
from the boiler in the steam-nozzle A, and having a 
high velocity, comes in contact with the water in 
combing-tube O , condenses, and also imparts to the 
water its own velocity. Water being a heavier body 
and acquiring the velocity of the steam, passes from 
the combining-tube into the delivery, from there it 
strikes the check with sufficient force to raise it against 
the boiler-pressure. 

If the steam is not perfectly condensed, the injector 
will not work, but will spray and cause it to fly off, in 

most automatic-regulating injectors. In answer to the 

181 


182 LOCOMO TIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


question, “ Why does it force water against a higher 
pressure than that which is working it?” we answer: A 
pressure in motion is working against a pressure at 
rest, or without motion. The pressure in motion is the 
steam escaping from steam-nozzle combining with the 
water imparting to it its velocity. The pressure at 
rest or without motion is the steam in the boiler into 
which the water is being forced. The pressure in mo¬ 
tion having the greater power (due to the velocity 
and weight acquired), overcomes the pressure without 
motion. 

The most simple form of the injector is shown in 
Fig. 92. iVis a steam-nozzle, which extends into the 


Fig. 94* 


■Xliroat cut out of \ 
Delivery Tub.e -- 


Steam Pipe 


Delivery,Tube End Check 

SS2 



- -v To.Boiler 


Steam 
Valve' 
Starting Wheel 


// * 
Overflow 
*Tliis is closed 
while Iniector 
is working 


Water Pipe 


tube O , which is called the combining-tube. In this 
tube the steam and water combine, the mouth of the 
combining-tube being open to the water-chamber R. 
In front of the combining-tube is the delivery-tube E. 
Beyond this is the overflow and end check. 









































THE INJECTOR, 


1 83 


The capacity of an injector is known by the 
diameter of the smallest tube, which is the delivery- 
tube. The purpose of the overflow is to allow the 
steam, which is creating a vacuum, to escape. Also, 
for the water to acquire a velocity before being forced 
into the boiler. 

A very simple illustration of how an injector oper¬ 
ates is shown in Fig. 93. The man is blowing into the 



The Man blowing into glass tube forcing the shot 
to open Valve H against the pressure in t ube, due 
to the velocity imparted to them (fSloane). 

Simple Illustration of the action of an Injector 


Fig. 93. 


tube, which has a valve at H , which opens inward. 
The neck of the tube is bent around and the end is in 
line with the valve H , and the diameter about the 
size of shot. The tube has some shot in it, and when 
the man blows into the tube the shot will acquire a 
velocity, issue from the tube, and strike the valve H 
and open it against the pressure that gives to it its 
velocity.* 

When an injector fails to work, the tank-valve 
should be examined, and if that is found to be open, 
the next point is to take down the screen and see if 
there is any dirt in it. Blow the injector out with a 


* Professor Sloane. 






184 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


little steam. After this, if it does not work correctly, 
examine the joints in water or suction pipe and see if 
any air enters : if there is, tighten them up; and if all 
these necessary matters have been attended to, the 
injector will now probably work correctly. 

Do not start out on the road until you are assured 
that both injectors are working correctly, for the right- 
hand one may fail at any time. 

When an injector gets hot, the best way to make it 
work is to let the hot water out at the screen. Some¬ 
times they can be made to work by blowing the water 
back into the tank, first dropping the tank-valve. 
When this is done, open tank-valve quickly and start 
suction. Another way is to pour cold water over the 
injector and pipes. 

At present the lifting and non-lifting injectors are 
in use, also the restarting. 

A lifting-injector is one that will lift the water to 
combining-tube. The non-lifting will not lift the water, 
but the water must flow to it. The restarting injector 
is one that, should the water-supply be stopped and 
then return, the injector would start to work again, as 
there is a continuous suction. 

The difference between a lifting and restarting 
injector is, that in a lifting-injector there is generally a 
closed overflow, and when from any cause the flow of 
water or steam is stopped, the injector breaks and can¬ 
not go to work, because, there being no outlet for the 
steam except back into the tank through water-pipes, 
this forces the water away from the injector and makes 
it hot. 

In a restarting injector (which is a lifting-injector 


THE INJECTOR . 


I8 5 


also) there is a free overflow, which is opened by the 
steam, and the tubes are provided with suitable open¬ 
ings. When the water breaks, the steam, instead of 
passing back into the water chamber and pipe, escapes 
beyond the combining-tube into the atmosphere, form¬ 
ing a continuous suction in the water-chambers, and 
when water returns it will go to work again ; but if 
the overflow is fastened shut, it will not restart, but be 
as a closed overflow. A closed overflow seems to 
be preferred, as it will not let the water overflow into 
the waste-pipe when there is much variation in the 
pressure. 

In fitting up an injector, all the tubes should be in 
line and free from obstruction inside; the joints on 
water-pipe must be tight, or the injector will not lift on 
account of the vacuum being impaired. 

Another cause of the failure of an injector to work 
is dirt in the tube—usually the delivery-tube. This 
will generally be known by the steam being driven 
back in the tank, also by dirt, such as fine coal or waste, 
in the tank valve or screen. These obstruct the flow 
of water and prevent the injector from working. The 
screen should be taken down before going out on each 
trip. 

Another cause of the failure of the injector to work 
is when the delivery-tube becomes worn or cut out at 
the throat. (See Fig. 94). This is caused by the tube 
being struck by the water after leaving the combining- 
tube, due to the velocity with which the water strikes 
it. This tube is the one that wears out most quickly. 

Many trials have been made to get an injector to 
force very hot water, but the failure to do so in the 


1 86 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


past has been caused by the temperature of the water 
being too high to condense the steam, which it must 
do before it will work. It is known that hotter water 
can be forced with steam of a low pressure than with 



Fig. 95 *— The Reagan Injector. (Rear Elevation.) 

that of a high temperature, for the reason that steam 
of a low temperature has less degrees of heat to be 
absorbed by the water, and can be condensed by water 
of a higher temperature. 

The author has taken advantage of this point in 
injector of Fig. 95, where he converts the steam of a 
high temperature to a low temperature, before it com¬ 
bines with the water in the combining-tube. 
































THE INJECTOR. 


18 7 


The object sought for in the Reagan Injector was 
the construction of an injector that would force water 



of a high temperature, to be a multi-tube injector, and 
to reduce the complication of the construction as 
much as possible. 

The first point, that of forcing hot water, is accom- 







































































































































18 8 LO COMO TIVE ME CHA NISM A ND ENGINEERING. 


plished by cooling the steam before it reaches the com¬ 
bining-tube, as in Fig. 92. The steam passes through 
the coil of pipe in water-chamber. This has the effect 
of reducing the temperature of the steam, so that it 
will readily combine or be condensed by the water of 
a high temperature. 

This pipe can be passed through any body of water 



Fig. 9 /.—The Reagan Injector. (Vertical Cross-section on 

Line ill in of Fig. 96.) 

away from the injector, so that it is brought back to 
the steam-chamber again. 

The second feature, that of multi-tubes, is accom¬ 
plished by having a rotating cylinder, into which tubes 
are fitted as in Fig. 96. There can be combining and 
delivery tubes in line, thus making a multi-capacity 
injector, by rotating the cylinder in front of the steam- 
nozzle. 

Another feature is that of making the steam-nozzle 














































THE INJECTOR. 1 89 

act as a water-regulating valve, thus doing away with 
an extra valve. 

Also, the steam-valve is fitted without packing, which 
is a valuable feature in an injector. 

QUESTIONS. 

Name the different parts of an injector as shown in 
Fig. 90. 

They are the steam-valve and tube, the combining- 
and delivery-tube, the overflow and the check. 

What takes place in the combining-tube ? 

The steam combines with the water and imparts to 
it a higher velocity. 

By what tube is the capacity of an injector rated ? 

By the smallest diameter of the delivery-tube, and 
by the pressure. 

Which tube receives the most wear, and why ? 

The delivery-tube receives the most wear, because it 
receives the water from the combining-tube, which has 
a high velocity, striking the delivery where the diameter 
is smallest. 

What is the effect on the injector? (See Fig. 92). 

Its cuts out the throat of the delivery, which pre¬ 
vents it from working when much worn. 

For what is the overflow used ? 

It is used to allow the water to acquire a high ve¬ 
locity before closing it out and forcing the water in 
boiler; also, to have an outlet for the steam, which 
forms the suction to lift the water to the combining- 
tube. 

What causes an injector to fail to work? 


I90 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

There are several causes: small supply of water 
caused by dirt in screen, dirt in tubes, tubes out of line, 
loose pipe-joints which impair the vacuum, and in¬ 
jector getting hot. 

When an injector fails, what should be done? 

Would look for any or all the causes stated. 

When an injector gets hot, what is the best way of 
getting it to work ? 

By letting the hot water out at the screen, or by 
cooling the injector with cold water. 

What is the difference between a lifting and a non¬ 
lifting injector? 

In a lifting-injector the water is raised by the steam 
forming a vacuum ; in a non-lifting, the water must 
flow to it. 

What is a restarting injector? 

An injector which will recommence work without 
the attention of the engineer, when from any cause the 
steam or water should have been stopped. 

Why does it operate in this way ? 

The overflow is free or open, and the steam can 
escape into the atmosphere, forming a continuous 
vacuum. 

Why is it that an injector with a closed overflow 
cannot restart ? 

Because the steam can only escape back into the 
water-pipe, which forces the water into the tank. 

How can a restarting injector be changed to a non¬ 
restarter ? 

By closing the overflow-valve tight ; this would 
make a heater out of it. 

When running an engine, and it should become snow- 


THE INJECTOR. 


I 9 I 

bound, what should be done to prevent freezing of 
injectors and pipes ? 

The frost-cocks should be opened and the water 
drained out of pipes and injector. 

Are non-lifting injectors much used on locomotives, 
and are there any points in favor of the non-lifter ? 

There are not many used, but they have the advan¬ 
tage that the tubes do not become coated with sedi¬ 
ment as does a lifting-injector, because the water sur¬ 
rounds the tubes and keeps them cool ; in a lifting- 
injector the water falls away and the tubes become 
dry. 

Is it policy to start out on the road without examin¬ 
ing both injectors, or if the right-hand one should fail 
just before starting? 

No, it is best to know that both are in working con¬ 
dition. 

What should be done in cold weather with the left 
injector? 

A heater should be made out of it to prevent it from 
freezing up. 

Why does the right-hand injector not freeze also ? 

Because it is being used, and water in the pipes 
being kept in motion prevents it from freezing. 

The injectors that are shown are of three types— 
single tube, non-restarting; double tube; and a re¬ 
starting. All are lifting-injectors. 

WILLIAM SELLERS & CO., INCORPORATED. 

The cuts (Figs. 98, 99) show the new restarting in¬ 
jector of 1887. As will be seen, the principal difference 
between this injector and others is, that if from any 


192 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

cause the flow of water or steam is interrupted and 
then returns, the injector starts to work without atten¬ 



tion, as long as the overflow-valve is open. To make a 
heater the overflow-valve is closed. 

Its construction is such that small particles of dirt, 





















































































Fig. 99. —William Sellers & Co.’s Restarting Injector. 

(Sectional View.) 


THE INJECTOR. 


193 


etc., are not liable to interfere with its working; and as 
its tubes are in a straight line, a wire can readily 



be passed through them to dislodge an obstruction if 
necessary. By simply disconnecting the pipe union at 




































194 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

the delivery end of the injector the combining and 
delivery tubes may be taken entirely out. 

Its manipulation when lifting the water is extremely 
simple : 

To start .—Pull out the lever. 

To stop .—Push in the lever. 

Reg ulate for quantity with the water-valve. 

When the water flows to the injector it is of course 
necessary to open the water-valve before pulling out 
the lever, and to close it after pushing in the lever. 

In starting on high lifts and in lifting hot water it is 
best to pull out the lever slowly. 

This apparatus will be found applicable to all kinds 
of service, and perfectly reliable under conditions much 
more severe than any likely to arise in ordinary prac¬ 
tice on locomotives or on stationary or marine boilers. 
It will start at the lowest steam-pressures with water 
flowing to it, and will lift the water promptly, even 
when the suction-pipe is hot. At io pounds steam- 
pressure it will lift the water two feet ; at 30 pounds, 


Capacity of Injector. 


Size 

No. 

Cubic 

Feet 

per 

Hour at 
120 lbs. 

Gallons 
per Hour 
at 120 lbs. 

Size of Pipe-steam and Delivery. 

Iron. 

Copper. 

Water-Supply 

Iron. 

Copper. 

4 t% 

75 

562 

f 

I 

f 

I 

5 rcf 

118 

885 

I 


ii 

A 

6 i 

170 

1275 

l± 

ii 

ii 

if 

7 i 

227 

1702 

if 

ii 

ii 

if 

Si 

291 

2182 

if 

ii 

ii 

if 


364 

2730 

2 

2 

2 

2f 

ioi 

444 

3330 

2 

2 

2 

2f 

ni 

530 

3975 

2 

2± 

2 

2f 





















THE INJECTOR. 


195 


five feet; and at all ordinary pressures, say 60 pounds 
and over, it will lift from twelve to eighteen feet. 


T 

O 

►H 

8 


It requires no regulation to work without waste of 
water for any variation of steam-pressure above 40 
pounds. 




















jg6 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


RUE INJECTORS. 

The combining-tube is adjusted by a screw which 
gives very fine graduations. This pattern of injector 
(manufactured by the Rue Manufacturing Co.) con¬ 
forms to the latest standard, and can be used in place 
of such with little if any change in pipes. 

Directions for Operating .—To start injector: Have 
the combining-tube in position to allow sufficient 
water to condense the steam when starting-valve is 
wide open. Then open the starting-valve slightly ; 
when water shows at overflow, open starting-valve 
wide, where it should remain while injector is at work. 
The quantity of water is graduated by moving the 
combining-tube. Towards the discharge gives more 
and towards the steam gives less water. 

To stop injector : Close starting-valve. To use as 
a heater, close overflow by moving combining-tube 
against the discharge, and open steam-valve to admit 
what steam is required. 


Size of 
Injector. 

Copper Pipe, Outside. 

Iron Pipe, Inside. 

Gallons of 
Water 
per Hour 
with 125 
Pounds 
Steam. 

Steam. 

Water and 
Delivery. 

Steam. 

Water and 
Delivery. 

4 

if 

If 

I 

I 

600 

5 

if 

if 

If 

If 

950 

6 

if 

if 

If 

If 

1275 

7 

if 

if 

If 

If 

1800 

8 

if 

if 

If 

If 

2250 

9 

if 

2f 

If 

2 

2800 

IO 

if 

2f 

If 

2 

3500 


















THE INJECTOR . 


197 


THE METROPOLITAN DOUBLE-TUBE INJECTOR. 

The locomotive injector shown in the engravings, in 
perspective and in section, is an improved form by 



the Hayden & Derby Manufacturing Co. of New 
York. The construction of the apparatus is simple. 















































igS LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

There are no outside attachments to become broken 
or interfere with placing the numerous attachments 
necessary in a cab. The tubes are all removed from 
the back end of the injector, and can be taken out 
without taking the injector off the engine. The valve- 
seats are independent of the body casting, and can be 
easily replaced or reground. This latter feature is a 
particularly good one, as there is no necessity to put 
the body casting in a lathe to turn up the valve-seats. 
The overflow-valve stem is attached rigidly to the 
steam-valve stem, and when the injector is working the 
overflow is closed and the valve held to its seat by 
boiler-pressure. 

Water cannot then run out of the overflow, and it is 
not necessary for an engineman to look out of a cab to 
see whether the injector is feeding or the water escap¬ 
ing from the overflow. 

The sectional view shows all of the parts so clearly, 
that description is not necessary. At 6 is shown the 
steam-valve, and the parts relating to it are numbered 
i to 5. The forcing steam-tube is shown at 7, and the 
combining-tube at 8. At 10 is shown the line check- 
valve. The overflow-valve stem is shown at 12, and 
the valve and its seat and other parts at 16, 17, and 47. 
The regulating-valve wheel is shown at 20; 24 and 25 
show the lifting steam-tube and combining-tube. 

Another important feature claimed for this injector 
is that the capacity steadily increases as the steam 
pressure increases. For instance, with 125 lbs. steam- 
pressure the No. 9 injector has a capacity of 2900 gal¬ 
lons of water per hour; with 150 lbs. steam-pressure 
this capacity is about 3000 gallons of water per hour; 


THE INJECTOR. 


I99 


and with 180 lbs. of steam-pressure it is about 3075 
gallons of water per hour. These injectors will start 
with 25 lbs. steam-pressure, and without any regulation 



the steam or water supply will work at all steam-press¬ 
ures up to 250 lbs. It is found that the independent 
lifting and forcing apparatus permits easy and close 













































































































200 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


regulation of the capacity, and owing to this apparatus 
these injectors are strong lifters, and no matter how 
hot the injector or suction-pipe may become, the injec¬ 
tor will promptly lift the water. In the most severe 
test it has been found that it never requires over 30 to 
40 seconds to bring the water, even after the injector 
has been used as a heater for some time. 

SAFETY-VALVES. 

The safety-valve is a very important device on any 
steam-boiler, as it governs the amount of pressure that 
can be carried by the boiler, forms the outlet for any 
pressure in excess of that which should be carried, and 
prevents boiler explosions due to high-pressure. This 
valve should not be tampered with after being set, 
especially by one not understanding its construction. 
Locomotives, as a rule, have two safety-valves on them : 
one is a lock-pop safety, and the other is not locked. 
The lock-pop is generally set at about 5 lbs. higher 
than the other, thus making it a positive safety, for if 
the other were tampered with, the lock-pop would re¬ 
lieve the boiler. A safety-valve must be able to rise 
at the predetermined pressure and relieve the boiler, 
and then close, thus preventing any further escape of 
steam until it reaches the proper pressure. There was 
this trouble in safety-valves prior to the Richardson 
safety, that when the valve raised it increased the tension 
of the spring, and caused the valve to close before the 
boiler was relieved of the proper amount of pressure, 
and then if the area of the valve were increased with a 
spring of the same tension, the valve would stay open 


SAFETY-VALVES. 


201 


too long and reduce the pressure 15 or 20 lbs.,—not 
only an uneconomical but a very bad feature on a loco¬ 
motive hauling heavy trains or on heavy grades. The 
first successful safety-valve was brought out by a loco¬ 
motive-engineer named Geo. Richardson, who ran on 
the Troy and Boston Railroad. The construction is 
shown in Fig. 103. As will be seen, the valve on the 
outer edge has an adjustable lip C'C', which can be 
raised or lowered, and is locked in position by the set¬ 
screws LL, which fit in the indents K\ this prevents 
the lip from turning around. The body of valve behind 
the lip is hollow, as CC\ the seat has a cavity around 
it, as aa, into which lip C'C' projects. The action of this 
valve, then, is to get an increased pressure to hold the 
valve up without increasing the area of the valve 
proper, which is accomplished in this manner : When 
the valve rises the steam fills in the cavity CC, and 
is then diverted by the lip C'C' down into the cavity 
aa, this produces a reaction or gain of pressure against 
the valve, and helps to hold it up. To increase the time 
that the valve will stay up and the amount of pressure 
reduced, the adjustable lip should be screwed down, 
which will reduce the opening between the lip CC and 
the cavity aa. To cause the valve to close quickly and 
not reduce the pressure too much, the lip should be 
raised. The proper position at which the valve-lip 
should be set is when the valve will close at a pressure 
of 3 to 5 lbs. less than that at which it raised. Bear 
in mind that it takes but a very little movement of the 
lip to make a great difference in the action of the valve. 
To increase the tension of the spring m, Fig. 105, the 
nut R is screwed down. 1 he valve in Fig. 105 is a 


tt 

C 

C* 




Fig. 103. Fig. 104. Fig. 105. 
































































































































































S A FE F Y-VA LI r E S. 


203 


combined safety-valve and muffler ; the steam passes 
through the plates in the casing, which are full of holes ; 



OUTSIDE VIEW WITHOUT MUFFLER. INSIDE VIEW WITH MUFFLER. 

Fig. 106.—The Kinney Locomotive Safety-valve. 


A, base; A', valve-seatS B , valve; C, spindle ; D, spring ; F, follower; FE, 
main casting ; F 2 , thread-hub ; G, compression-screw ; H, check-nut ; I, 
muffler ; J, regulating ring ; JJ', lugs of ring ; K, parallel rods ; L , cross¬ 
head ; M, adjusting nut ; O , locking-latch. 

this has a tendency to break the force of the steam 
before it reaches the atmosphere, thus reducing the 






























































































































































































































































































































































204 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

noise, which was a great nuisance to the public in the 
older form of valves. 

Another design of safety-valve which is coming into 
use is that of Fig. 106. The claims are in the ad¬ 
justment of the valve. In order to adjust either the 
pressure or the blow-down, first remove the muffler /; 
this exposes the compression-screw G , adjustable nut 
M , cross-head A, locking-latch ( 9 , and check-nut H . 
Screwing down the compression-nut G, the pressure is 
increased, and the reverse for lessening the pressure. 
As a rule, from to \ turn will change the pressure of 
the valve 5 lbs. either way. By raising the locking- 
latch O screw down on the adjusting-nut M, the blow¬ 
down is reduced 1 lb., and the reverse increases it 1 lb. 
This valve can be adjusted without being taken off the 
dome, made by American Steam Gauge Co., Boston, 
Mass. 

STEAM-GAUGES. 

Two forms of steam-gauges are in general use on 
locomotives, one using a diaphragm, and the other 
using a hollow tube in the shape of a letter C, having 
an elliptical section. In the gauge having a diaphragm 
the pressure is behind the diaphragm, which is fastened 
on a round chamber, the diaphragm acting as a head, 
which is steam-tight. The face of diaphragm is corru¬ 
gated. The pressure bearing against the diaphragm 
causes it to bulge out in the middle, and the amount 
that the middle rises depends on the pressure behind 
it. Bearing against the diaphragm in the centre is a 
bell-crank lever; attached to the other arm of lever is a 
link, which is connected to a segment having teeth; this 


STEAM-GA UGES. 


205 


segment is pivoted on the lower end. In contact with 
teeth is a small toothed pinion ; to the shaft of this 
pinion is attached the hand or pointer. Any movement 
of diaphragm will move the hand through the mechan¬ 
ism just described. 

In the other form, Fig. 107, the pressure acts on the 



Fig. 107.—Improved Steam-gauge. 


inside of tube cc ; this pressure causes the end of tubes 
to straighten out, thus spreading the ends, to which is 
attached the bent lever CFLM. This is connected to 
the toothed segment e by rod R ; the segment e rotates 
the small pinion and shaft S, which carries the index or 
hand PP of gauge. By having the lever CFLM attached 
to the ends of tubes a , c, as in Fig. 107, the distance 
the lower end of lever CFLM moves is double that 






































































20 6 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


which it would be if only attached to one end of tube, 
and having the fulcrum rigidly connected. The tubes 
are made of brass, and are seamless,—which is a great 
improvement, and required some time and money to 
accomplish it. The great trouble with the brazed 
tubes was, that they would leak, this would destroy the 



Fig. ioS.—Improved Steam-gauge. 


accuracy, and steam escaping inside the gauge would 
make it hard to see the dial. The tubes are attached 
to boiler by a pipe attached at H. The seamless-tube 
gauges are made by the Ashcroft Manufacturing Com¬ 
pany of New York. On all gauges the pipe connect¬ 
ing gauge with boiler is bent in the shape of the letter 
S. The idea of this is to prevent the steam from coming 
in contact with the diaphragm or tubes, as this would 
affect their elasticity. The steam is condensed in the 





















STEAM-GA UGES. 


20 7 


pipe, and the steam-pressure forces the water up into 
tubes or diaphragm-chamber; this pipe is provided 
with a cock to close when it is desired to remove the 
gauge when steam is in boiler. Gauges get out of 
order, or do not register correctly, and then are called 
heavy or light gauge. 

A heavy indicating-gauge is one that registers more 
than there is pressure in boiler.* A light indicating- 
gauge, one that registers less than pressure in boiler. A 
heavy indicating-gauge is very often caused by the dia¬ 
phragm becoming set or extended ; some tube-gauges 
will do the same. In this case the hand will not come 
back to the pin, but will show io or 15 lbs. without any 
pressure in the boiler. A light indicating-gauge may be 
caused by the tubes or diaphragm not moving the 
proper distance at which the dial was marked off at the 
time it was tested when made, or by a dial moving 
around. Another cause is any lost motion in the mech¬ 
anism which would cause a light indicating-gauge, 
for the tubes might be moving the proper distance, but 
the mechanism would not move the index the proper 
distance on dial. In a diaphragm-gauge any dirt that 
would get between the end of bell-crank lever and 
diaphragm would cause a heavy indicating-gauge. 
Another cause is the opening to diaphragm or tube 
becoming corroded or clogged up, not allowing the 
pressure to act as it should in tubes or diaphragm. 

* The terms light and heavy gauge are used in a different manner 
when testing a gauge. A gauge is said to be heavy when it indicates 
less than test gauge, and a light gauge when it indicates more than 
test gauge. In the first case it would require 90 lbs. of steam in boiler 
to make it indicate 80 lbs. of steam. Second case it would require 70 
lbs. to make it indicate 80 lbs. of steam. 




27. Feed-valve Stem. 

38. Handle-button. 

43. Globe-valve Centre¬ 

piece. 

44. Globe-valve-stem Nut. 
44. Equalizing-tube Nut. 

44. Pulsating-stem Nut. 

45. Globe-valve Stem. 

47. f Nut. 

50. Feed-stem Nut. 

52. Filler-plug. 

57. Pulsating-valve Stem. 

62. Globe-valve. 

63. Wood-handle. 

65. Lower Feed-arm. 

66. Feed-valve. 

67. Upper Gauge-arm. 

68. | Nut. 

6 g. Lower Gauge arm. 

70. Drain-valve. 

71. Drain-valve Centre¬ 

piece. 

72. Drain-valve Stem, 
no. Condenser. 

in. Upper Feed-arm. 

112. Support-arm. 

113. Right and Left Cou, 

ling-nut. 

114. Support-post. 

115. Equalizing-tube. 

116. Body. 


Fig. iog.—T iie “ Detroit ” No. 1 Improved Air-pump Lubricator. 

(New Style.) 







































































































LOCOMOTIVE-CYLINDER LUBRICATORS. 2 °9 


LOCOMOTIVE-CYLINDER LUBRICATORS (DETROIT). 

In this lubricator, as in all others of this class, the 
weight of a volume of water displaces the oil in the 
oil-reservoir, causing it to flow upward through water 
in glass tubes, which open into the pipe leading to the 
steam-chest. The method of filling and the operation 
of the lubricator is as follows: Before filling the reser¬ 
voir the valves must be closed to prevent any steam 
from getting into the lubricator.* The valves first to 
be closed are the water-valve 9 and the feed-valves 26; 
then open the drain-valve 33, and let the water of con¬ 
densation run out, removing the filler stopple 42. 
After filling the reservoir the stopple 42 should be put 
in, and the steam-valve located at or near the steam- 
bridge in the cab opened ; also open water-valve 9 when 
the lubricator is to be set in operation. The feed-valves 
are opened and regulated as required by engineer. 
When steam is admitted into the condenser no, this 
fills up with water, which also passes down the water- 
tube 36 underneath the oil in reservoir 2 the oil is then 
forced upward, and passes into the oil-tubes 37, one to 
each side. The oil then surrounds the feed-valves 26, 
and when these are opened the oil will pass through in 
drops, raising through the water in sight-feed glasses, 
and by the check-valve 20 into upper feed-arm 15, and 
from there through the nozzle 22 into tallow-pipe. In 
order to equalize the pressure on the top of water in the 
sight-feed glasses, there are provided equalizing-tubes 
7, 7, which convey the steam to upper feed-arm 


* Figs. 1 it**, hi, 115. 




NEW STYLE. 



SIDE VIEW 

Fig. ira—T he “Detroit" No. i Improved Air-pump 

Lubricator. 











































































s 



Fig. iio<z. 

















































































































































65 - 

Fig. iii.—The “Detroit” No. 2 Improved Locomotive- 
cylinder Lubricator. (Front View.) 

































































































































































LOCOM J T 1 VE-C YL 1 XDER L UBRICA TORS. 


213 


DESCRIPTION OF PARTS OF THE DETROIT IMPROVED 
LOCOMOTIVE-CYLINDER LUBRICATOR. 


2. Oil-reservoir. 

3. Condenser. 

4. Extension-top, complete. 

5. Tail-nut. 

6. “ -pipe. 

7. Equalizing-tubes. 

8. Elbow. 

9. Water-valve, complete. 

10. “ Stem. 

11. “ Centre-piece. 

12. “ Follower-plate. 

13. “ Packing-nut. 

14. Wood-handle. 

15. Upper Feed-arm, right. 

16. “ “ left. 

17. Hand-oiler. 

18. “ Cover. 

19. “ Plug. 

20. Check-valve. 

21. “ Guide. 

22. Nozzle. 


23. Water-plug. 

24. Packing-nut for Glass. 

25. Lower Feed-arm, complete. 

26. Feed-valve. 

27. “ Stem. 

28. “ Packing-nut. 

29. “ Stem-handle. 

30. Filler-arm. 

31. “ -plug. 

32. Lower Gauge-arm. 

33. Drain-valve. 

34. “ Stem. 

35. Jam-nut. 

36. Water-tube. 

37. Oil-tube. 

38. Handle-button. 

15a. Upper Feed-arm, complete, 
right. 

16 a. Upper Feed-arm, complete, 
left. 

All Glasses. 3 X J. 


2 14 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


through a cored passage, and at the same time the 
steam escaping through the nozzle 22 draws the oil out 
and forces it into the tallow-pipe, this being the action 



Ftg. 112. 


complete.* The idea in illustrating this lubricator in 
full and detail, with each part numbered and named, is 
to try to make it beneficial to the engineer and fireman. 
In making out work reports the engineer is often at 


*Figs. noa, hi, 115. 















































































LOCOMOTIVE-CYLINDER LUBRICATORS. 21 5 


loss for a proper name to give the broken parts, but by 
referring to the cuts and number as shown, the engineer 
has a guide which the writer hopes will meet all require¬ 
ments. 



p IG> II3 .—the “Detroit” No. 3 Triple Locomotive-cylinder 

Lubricator. (Side View.) 

The principal points of merit in the Detroit lubri¬ 
cator are as follows: The equalizing-pipes start from a 
point higher than the steam inlet at C, and owing to 



































































































Fig. 114. —The “Detroit” No. 3 Triple Locomotive-cylinder 

Lubricator. (Front View.) 216 







































































































































































LOCO MO TIVE C YLINDER L ULRICA 7 ORS. 


2iy 


DESCRIPTION OF PARTS OF THE DETROIT TRIPLE 
LOCOMOTIVE-CYLINDER LUBRICATOR. 


IOO. 

Oil-reservoir. 

25 - 

Lower Feed-arm. 

ior. 

Condenser. 

26. 

Feed-valve. 

102. 

Extension-top. 

27 - 

“ Stem. 

6. 

Tail-nut. 

28. 

“ Nut. 

7 - 

Equalizing-tubes. 

29. 

“ Handle. 

8. 

Elbows. 

33 - 

Drain-valve. 

6. 

Tail-pipe. 

34 - 

• “ Stem. 

9 

Water-valve, complete. 

37 - 

Oil-tube. 

IO. 

“ Stem. 

38 . 

Handle-button. 

ir. 

“ Centre-piece. 

40. 

Upper Feed-arm to Air. 

12. 

“ Follower. 

41. 

Filler Stopple-handle. Brake- 

13 - 

“ Packing-nut. 


attachment. 

14 - 

Wood-handle. 

42. 

Filler Stopple. 

T 5 ; 

Upper Feed-arm, right. 

43 - 

Jamb-nut. 

16. 

“ “ left. 

45 - 

Tail-nut to Air-brake Attach¬ 

17. 

Hand-oiler. 


ment. 

18. 

“ Cover. 

46. 

Tail-pipe to Air-brake Attach¬ 

19. 

“ Plug. 


ment. 

20. 

Check-valve. 

48. 

Check-guide to Air brake At¬ 

21. 

“ Guide. 


tachment. 

22. 

Nozzle. 

49. 

Equalizing-tube to Air-brake 

- 3 - 

Water plug. 


Attachment. 

24. 

Packing-nut for Glass. 


All Glasses, 3 X f. 


218 L 0 COMO TIVE ME CHA NISM A ND ENGINEERING. 


this fact all surplus condensation must drain back into 
the boiler, and oil and steam only (which are both lubri¬ 
cants) pass through the tallow-pipes to the valves and 
cylinders. This is of the utmost importance, because 
better lubrication is secured with a minimum amount of 
oil, and absolute regularity of feed is obtained. 

The equalizing-pipes being on outside of lubricator, 
leakage or defects in same are readily detected and 
remedied, all overheating of lubricator is avoided, and a 
full supply of condensation is always to be depended on. 

In case of breakage of sight-feed glass, no steam can 
escape, as ports are instantly closed automatically by 
check-valve over sight-feed glass. 

The disabling of one side of the lubricator will not 
affect the satisfactory working of the opposite side. 

There is no possibility of cross-feed to one cylinder 
or into boiler. No movement of throttle-lever will 
cause any variation of feed. It is as simple in opera¬ 
tion as those in use on stationary engines, and effects 
an enormous saving in oil and wear of machinery. The 
lubricator is made as a combined air-pump and cylinder- 
lubricator. 

PRESSURE-REGULATORS FOR STEAM-HEATING. 

As most all trunk lines have adopted the use of 
steam-heat for passenger trains, the locomotives are 
equipped with pressure-reducing valves. The construc¬ 
tion and action of these valves should be understood 
by the engineer and fireman. The valves shown are 
examples of good reducing-valves, giving good service 
on standard railroads in the country. A reducing-valve 
which will shut off steam in case of a failure in opera- 


PRESSURE-REGULATORS EOR STEAM-HEATING . 219 


tion due to a broken spring. Such a valve is found in 
the Foster “pressure-regulator,” Fig. 116, the action 
of which is as follows : Steam enters at A , and passing 
through the valve is delivered at B. As will be seen, 
the delivery-pressure entering chamber AT tends to raise 



Fig. 115.—Foster Pressure-regulator. 


the diaphragm and to close the valve. In opposition to 
this the compressed spring H tends to open the valve. 
When the valve is in operation there is an equilibrium 
between these two forces. If the delivery-pressure 
falls, the pressure on the diaphragm is diminished, and 
the spring, overcoming the lighter resistance, opens the 
















































































220 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


valve until the equilibrium is again established and the 
pressure restored ; on the other hand, any increased 
delivery-pressure bearing on the diaphragm overcomes 
the resistance of the spring and draws the valve toward 
its seat in proportion to the increased pressure. When 



Fig. ii6.—Foster Pressure-regulator. 

the tension of the spring is proportioned to the press¬ 
ure bearing on the diaphragm, a constant and uniform 
discharge is insured. 

The spring-nut E is threaded on to the spindle, and, 
having wings which extend into the hexagon-spring 









































REDUCING-VALVE FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 


221 


chamber H, it is prevented from turning with the 
spindle, but is free to move up and down with it. The 
flange on the lower side of the spring-nut E is a stop 
to prevent an excessive lift and rupture of the dia¬ 
phragm. The opening of the valve D is regulated by 
turning the spindle, which is threaded into M. 

It will be seen from this that if the spring should 
break the equilibrium would be destroyed, and the de- 
livery-pressure bearing on the diaphragm would close 
the valve and stop the flow of steam to the train-pipe. 
In this case it is not only a regulating-valve, but in the 
event of the spring breaking it becomes an automatic 
check-valve. 

This valve, being an automatic regulator, can control 
to a nicety the steam admitted to each car, making it 
possible to carry in the train-pipe enough pressure to 
get a quick and adequate circulation the whole length 
of the train, and at the same time to carry a low-press¬ 
ure in each car. This is the ideal condition. The 
parts are named so clearly in the descriptions, that in 
case the engineer has a report to make on the work slip, 
he will not be at a loss for a name for the different 
parts to be repaired on either of these regulators. 

THE MASON REDUCING-VALVE FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 

This valve is designed to automatically reduce and 
maintain an even steam-pressure for heating cars from 
the locomotives. It is placed in the steam-supply pipe 
leading from the boiler to the heating system, and 
regulates the amount of steam passing to the system, 
allowing only sufficient steam to maintain the desired 
pressure. These reducing-valves are fitted with union 


222 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 



connections or tapped ends, in any size preferred. 
They are thoroughly reliable, and are the standard used 
on over one hundred railroads. [A good reason for 
showing this valve.— Author.] 

Description. (See Sectional View.)—The principle 
on which the Mason Reducing-valve works is that 
of an auxiliary-valve n controlled by the low-pressure 
in the heating system, through the medium of a metal 
diaphragm, and admits steam from the initial side 
of the valve through a port to operate a piston 17, 

which in turn opens the main-valve 
16, and admits steam to the sys¬ 
tem. By referring to sectional 
view it will be seen that the steam 
enters the valve at the side marked 
“ inlet,” a small portion of it pass¬ 
ing up through the auxiliary-valve 
11. This valve 11 is forced open 
by the compression of the large 
spiral spring 8, acting on the but¬ 
ton 10 through the diaphragm, so 
that in opening the valve 11 the 
diaphragm is also forced down. As 
soon as the valve 11 is opened 
steam passes through and into port 
N under piston 17. By raising 
this piston 17 the main-valve 16 is 
opened against the initial pressure, 
since the area of valve 16 is only 
one half of that of piston 17. 
Steam is thus admitted to the system. When the 
pressure in the system has reached the required point. 


Fig. 117.—Mason Re¬ 
ducing-valve. 







































































REDUCING-VALVE FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 223 


which is determined by the spring 8, the diaphragm is 
forced upward by the low pressure, which passes up 
through port XX, to chamber 00 , under the dia¬ 
phragm, allowing valve 11 to close, shutting off the 
steam from piston 17. The main-valve 16 is now 
forced to its seat by the initial pressure shutting off 
steam from the system, and pushing the piston 17 down 
to the bottom of its stroke. The steam beneath this 
piston 17 exhausts freely around it (the piston being 
fitted loosely for this purpose), and passes off into the 
system. It will be seen from this that when the press- 
sure in the heating system has reached a predetermined 
point the flow of steam will be automatically checked, 
and when the pressure is slightly reduced the valve will 
again open and supply the required amount of steam. 
The piston 17 is fitted with a dash-pot 18, which pre¬ 
vents chattering or pounding when the pressure is 
suddenly reduced. 

Directions .—Place the valve vertically in the steam- 
supply pipe. The steam should flow through the valve 
in the direction indicated by the arrow cast in the side. 
Before connecting the valve the pipes should be thor¬ 
oughly blown out, in order to expel all dirt and chips. 
If the piping is new, steam should be allowed to flow 
through for some little time, so as to burn off all the 
oil or grease which may be in it. 

When ready to let on steam, turn the wheel at top 
of the valve in the same direction as you would to open 
a globe-valve. Time must be allowed for the system 
to fill, before the required pressure is obtained. 

If the valve should not maintain a low pressure, it 
will probably be due to the fact that some dirt or 



'tyyMy/// 

VmM 


26 SPRING 


* 


"SCREW 0 






23 diaphragm- 

22 - 


i PR IMG 12 


% V. 




224 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


chips from the piping have lodged in the seat of the 
valve 16. 


P 

Fig. 118.— Mason Reducing-valve. (Sectional View.) 

To take the valve apart, the tension on the diaphragm 
spring 8 must first be removed by turning the wheel as 





























































































REDUCING-VALVE FOR LOCOMOTIVES . 


225 


far as it will go in the direction taken by the hands of 
a watch. Then unscrew the spring-case 9, and remove 
the button 10 and the diaphragm ; also remove the cap 
22, which contains the auxiliary-valve. The threaded 
rod which accompanies each valve can then be screwed 
into the valve-disk 16, which should work easily. Pull 
out this valve and clean the seat. Then insert the rod 
through the valve-stem hole, screw it into the piston 
17, and see if it works up and down easily. It will not 
be found possible to raise and lower the piston 17 sud¬ 
denly, as the dash-pot 18 will restrain it. If the piston 
17 is found to be stuck fast, remove the dash-pot 18 at 
the bottom of the valve, pull out the piston and clean 
it with fine emery-cloth, being careful to wipe off all 
emery before replacing. Before replacing the cap 22, 
examine the small auxiliary-valve 11, and see that it is 
tight, and free from dirt. Be sure that the diaphragm 
23 is perfectly clean, also that there is no dirt where it 
makes its seat. 

The wheel is made self-locking in any position by 
means of a steel locking-pin 25, which is forced by a 
spring into any one of twelve recesses in a hardened 
steel plate 5. We advise removing the valve during 
the summer. Before replacing, thoroughly clean and 
oil all the parts. 


CHAPTER XIII* 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, PUMP-GOVERNORS, 
AND WESTINGHOUSE BRAKES. 

The Westinghouse Improved Quick-action Auto¬ 
matic Brake consists of the following essential parts : 

1. The Steam Engine and Pump, which furnishes 
the compressed air. 

2. The Main Reservoir, in which the compressed 
air is stored. 

3. The Engineer’s Brake and Equalizing- 
discharge VALVE, which regulates the flow of air 
from the main reservoir into the brake-pipe for releas¬ 
ing the brakes, and from the main train or brake pipe 
to the atmosphere for applying the brakes. 

4. The Main Train or Brake Pipe, which leads 
from the main reservoir, to the engineer’s brake and 
equalizing-discharge valve, and thence along the train, 
supplying the apparatus on each vehicle with air. 

5. The Auxiliary Reservoir, which takes a sup¬ 
ply of air from the main reservoir, through the brake- 
pipe, and stores it for use on its own vehicle. 

6. The Brake-cylinder, which has its piston-rod 
attached to the brake-levers in such a manner that, 

* This chapter is taken from the Instruction-book of the Westing- 
house Air-brake Company. 


226 




BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC. 227 

when the piston is forced out by air-pressure, the 
brakes are applied. 

7. The Improved Quick-action Automatic 
Triple-valve, which is suitably connected to the 
main train-pipe, auxiliary reservoir, and brake-cylinder, 
and is operated by the variation of pressure in the 
brake-pipe (1) so as to admit air from the auxiliary 
reservoir (and under certain desirable conditions, as will 
be explained hereafter, from the train-pipe) to the 
brake-cylinder which applies the brakes, at the same 
time cutting off communication from the brake-pipe to 
the auxiliary reservoir, or (2) to restore the supply from 
the train-pipe to the auxiliary reservoir, at the same 
time letting the air in the brake-cylinder escape, which 
releases the brakes. 

8. The Couplings, which are attached to flexible 
hose and connect the train-pipe from one vehicle to 
another. 

9. The Air-GAUGE, which, being of the duplex pat¬ 
tern, shows simultaneously the pressures in the main 
reservoir and the train-pipe. 

10. The Pump-GOVERNOR, which regulates the sup¬ 
ply of steam to the pump, stopping it when the maxi¬ 
mum air-pressure desired has been accumulated in the 
train brake-pipe and reservoirs. 

The automatic action of the brake is due to the con¬ 
struction of the triple-valve, the primary parts of which 
are a piston and slide-valve. A moderate reduction of 
air-pressure in the train-pipe causes the greater pressure 
remaining stored in the auxiliary reservoir to force the 
piston of the triple-valve and its slide-valve to a posi¬ 
tion which will allow the air in the auxiliary reservoir 


228 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


to pass directly into the brake-cylinder and apply the 
brake. 

A sudden or violent reduction of the air in the train- 
pipe produces the same effect, and in addition to this 
causes supplemental valves in the triple-valve to be 
opened, permitting the pressure in the train-pipe to 
also enter the brake-cylinder, augmenting the pressure 
derived from the auxiliary reservoir about 20 per cent, 
producing practically instantaneous action of the 
brakes to their highest efficiency throughout the entire 
' train. 

When the pressure in the brake-pipe is again re¬ 
stored to an amount in excess of that remaining in the 
auxiliary reservoir, the piston and slide-valve are forced 
in the opposite direction to their normal position, 
opening communication from the train-pipe to the 
auxiliary reservoir, and permitting the air in the brake- 
cylinder to escape to the atmosphere, thus releasing 
the brakes. 

If the engineer wishes to apply the brakes, he moves 
the handle of the engineer’s brake-valve to the right, 
which first closes the port, retaining the pressure in the 
main reservoir, and then permits a portion of the air in 
the train-pipe to escape. 

To release the brakes, he moves the handle to the 
extreme left, which allows the air in the main reservoir 
to flow freely into the brake-pipe, restoring the press¬ 
ure and releasing the brakes. 

A valve called the Conductor’s Valve is placed in 
each car, with a cord running throughout the length of 
the car, and any of the trainmen, by pulling this cord, 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC ’. 229 

can open the valve, which allows the air to escape from 
the train-pipe, applying the brake. 

When the train has been brought to a full stop in 
this manner the valve should be closed. 

Should the train break in two, the air in the brake- 
pipe escapes, and the brakes are applied instantaneously 
to both sections of the train. The brakes are also auto¬ 
matically applied should a hose or pipe burst. It will 
therefore be seen that any reduction of pressure in the 
train-pipes applies the brakes —which is the essential 
feature of the automatic brake. 

An angle-cock is placed on each end of the train- 
pipe, and is closed before separating the couplings, 
thus preventing the application of the brakes when cars 
are uncoupled. 

A stop-cock is placed in the branch-pipe leading 
from the main train-pipe to the quick action triple¬ 
valve, and one in main train-pipe near the engineer’s 
brake-valve, and within convenient reach of the en¬ 
gineer. The former is for the purpose of cutting out 
or rendering inoperative the brake on any particular 
car which may have become disabled through damage, 
and the latter for cutting out the engineer’s brake- 
valve upon all but the leading engine, where two or 
more engines are coupled in the same train. 

It is desirable to use the old-style plain automatic 
triple-valve for locomotive driver and tender brakes, 
and its illustration in this connection will be noted in 
Plate I, Fig. 1, and in greater detail in Figs. 3, 4, and 
4a. 

Mechanically, the engineer’s brake and equalizing- 
discharge valve provides for a lack of skill in so far as 


230 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


such devices can be made automatic; but it is essential 
that the engineer should be possessed of a degree of 
skill and judgment which will enable him to operate 
the brakes of his train in a judicious manner, by using 
them with care and moderation in making ordinary 
stops, and only in cases of actual emergency to make a 
quick application. 

The attention of the engineer is therefore especially 
directed to the description of the new engineer’s brake 
and equalizing-discharge valve, and the instructions re¬ 
lating to the proper method of operating the quick- 
action automatic brakes. 

THE AIR-PUMP. 

The construction of the air-pump is clearly shown in* 
cross-section in plate 2, Fig. 119. A steam-cylinder 3 
and air-cylinder 5 are joined together by a centre¬ 
piece 4, which forms the bottom head of the steam- 
cylinder and the top head of the air-cylinder, while 
suitable stuffing-boxes 56 therein encircle the piston- 
rod 10, the lower end of which is attached to air- 
piston 11, and the upper end to the steam-piston, each 
of which is provided with suitable packing-rings. 

Suitably arranged valves in the walls of the steam- 
cylinder 3 and its upper head 2, to which further refer¬ 
ence will be made, admit steam alternately above and 
below the steam-piston 10, forcing it upward and 
downward, giving a similar movement to the air-piston ; 
while air from the outside atmosphere is drawn alter¬ 
nately through the air-inlets and receiving-valves 31 
and 33 and forced under pressure through the dis- 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC. 


231 







Mi 


gU-t 


1 ■ 


f, ■ 




?n 


(-T 


>* .>.l' 


■w -;; 


i S'/m 








Fig. 119 













































232 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

charge-valves 32 and 30, into chamber 5 , and thence 
to the main reservoir through pipes connecting at the 
union swivel 53. 

The main steam-valve 7 is formed of two pistons 
of unequal diameter, mounted upon opposite ends 
of a rod, the upper one occupying cylindrical bush¬ 
ing 25, and the lower bushing 26, each of these 
bushings having two series of port-holes for the ad¬ 
mission of steam to and its exhaust from the steam- 
cylinder by a reciprocating movement of the main- 
valve. 

Connection with the source of steam-supply is made 
to the union-nut 54, and with steam in chambers. The 
tendency of the main-valve, on account of the greater 
diameter of its upper piston, is to move upward, thus 
providing for its upward movement and for the admis¬ 
sion of steam to the upper side of the steam-piston 10, 
and its exhaust from the lower side. 

The opposite or downward movement is accom¬ 
plished at the proper moment by the combined action 
of steam-pressure upon the upper surface of the lower 
piston of the main-valve and reversing-piston 23, the 
stem of the latter extending through the bushing 22, 
in which it operates, and bearing upon the top of the 
main steam-valve. Pressure upon the upper side of 
reversing-piston 23 is regulated by a small slide-valve 
16 in the central chamber e, of the upper steam-cylin¬ 
der head 2, to which steam-pressure is conducted from 
chamber in through port h. 

This valve is given motion by a rod 17, which ex¬ 
tends through bushing 19 in the upper head and into 
the hollow main-piston rod 10, and is provided with a 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS , VALVES , ETC. 


button-head on its lower end, and a shoulder n just 
below the top head; the plate 18 on the steam-piston 
alternately strikes this shoulder and button-head as the 
steam-piston io approaches the top or bottom head of 
the steam-cylinder. 

Steam from the boiler being admitted to chamber 
m forces the main-valve upward, which uncovers the 
lower series of ports in bushing 25, and entering the 
steam-cylinder above the main-piston 10 drives it 
downward, while steam used on the previous upward 
stroke is discharged from the under side of the lower 
main-valve piston through the lower series of ports in 
bushing 26, which were also uncovered by this upward 
movement of the main-valve, thence through a suitably 
arranged passage f, shown in dotted lines, communicat¬ 
ing with exhaust-chamber g, whence it is discharged 
by a pipe connected at union swivel 57, through the 
smok< box and stack to the atmosphere. As the main- 
piston reaches the termination of its downward stroke, 
plate 18, striking the button-head on the lower end of 
the reversing-valve rod 17, draws the rod and its valve 
16 downward, uncovering port a in the upper head 
and admitting steam above reversing-piston 23, which 
forces it and the main-valve 7 downward to the posi¬ 
tion shown in the cut, and permits steam from above 
the main-piston 10 to be discharged through the upper 
series of port-holes in bushing 25, thence through pas¬ 
sage ff to exhaust-chamber g and the atmosphere, 
while live steam is admitted from chamber m through 
the upper series of ports in bushing 26 to the under 
side of main-piston 10, driving it upward until plate 18 
strikes the shoulder n of reversing-rod 17, which pushes 


234 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


valve 16 upward, and brings the small exhaust-cavity 
in its seat opposite ports b and c , exhausting the press- 
sure from above reversing-piston 23 into exhaust-pas¬ 
sage ff, which permits the main-valve to again move 
upward as previously described. 

The upward movement of air-piston n causes the 
lower receiving-valve 33 to lift, and air to be drawn 
through the series of inlet-ports in the under side of 
the valve-chamber cap 34, thence past the valve and 
through port p' to the cylinder; the downward move¬ 
ment of the air-piston closes receiving-valve 33, and 
compresses the air contained in the cylinder to a point 
in excess of that which may already be stored in the 
main reservoir, which lifts discharge-valve 32, and per¬ 
mits the compressed air to flow into chamber 5 and to 
the main reservoir through pipes connected at union 
swivel 53. The downward movement of the air-piston 
similarly causes the air to be drawn into the upper end 
of the cylinder through the upper air-inlet ports to 
chamber v through upper receiving-valve 31 and pas¬ 
sage p. 

The air on this side of the air-piston in being com¬ 
pressed during the upward stroke closes the receiving- 
valve, and raising upper discharge-valve 30 is forced 
into chamber /, and thence through communication 
port r to chamber ^ and the main reservoir. 

The lift of the receiving-valves should be of an 
inch, and that of the discharge-valves -J. 

It is most important that the prescribed amount of 
lift of air-valves be maintained, and if exceeded by wear 
from action, which will ultimately occur, should not be 
permitted to become excessive, in which event valves 


brakes, air-pumps, VALVES , ETC. 


235 


and seats may both be ruined by pounding- upon each 
other, while prompt attention may save both, and pre¬ 
vent disagreeable pounding. 

In renewing bushing 43 the shoulders upon which 
it rests in position should be carefully ground in to 
prevent leakage of air past these, then adjust set-screw 
46, when cap-nut 29 may be screwed firmly, but not 
harshly, upon it. 

With 125 pounds steam-pressure, the 8-inch pump 
when in good condition will compress o to 70 pounds 
pressure of air in a standard main reservoir 26^ inches 
in diameter by 34 inches long (outside measurement), 
about 9 cubic feet capacity in 88 seconds, and from 20 
to 70 pounds in 62 seconds. 

The efficiency of the pump and its condition may 
therefore be readily ascertained at any time desired. 

If other reservoirs are used than the dimensions 
given, the duty may be calculated in exact proportion. 

THE QUICK-ACTION TRIPLE-VALVE. 

A large view of the triple-valve in cross-section is 
shown in Fig. 120, a transparent view of the slide-valve 
in Fig. 121, and of the slide-valve seat in Fig. 122, to 
which references will be made in the following expla¬ 
nation of its purpose and functions. 

The quick-action triple-valve is wholly automatic in 
principle, that feature existing in the construction of 
the plain automatic triple-valve by which its mechan¬ 
ism could be “ cut out ” or made inoperative, or per¬ 
mitting the use of the “ straight-air” or non-automatic 
form of brake, being entirely omitted. 


236 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


As its name implies, the quick-action triple-valve is 
designed to facilitate rapidity of action of the brakes 
upon railway trains, particularly those of considerable 
length, where desired. 

Simultaneous action, as nearly as possible, is quite 
necessary to avoid shock consequent upon link or 
drawbar slack between cars. Such action, however, is 
only necessary in an emergency, its ordinary action 
for service applications of the brake being in entire 
harmony with that of the old-style triple-valves, either 
method of application being entirely dependent upon 
the rapidity with which the air is discharged from the 
train-pipe, and consequently under the control of the 
engineer. 

Under each car in the main train-pipe is a drain-cup 
forming a tee, from which a branch-pipe extends to 
the triple-valve, to which it is connected at A , and a 
stop-cock is placed in this branch-pipe for the purpose 
of rendering inoperative the brakes upon any par¬ 
ticular car when occasion requires, by reason of acci¬ 
dent to the brake gear or apparatus leaving the main 
train-pipe unobstructed to supply air to the remain¬ 
ing vehicles. 

The opening B communicates with a chamber in 
the cylinder-head, from which a pipe leads to the 
auxiliary reservoir. The opening C communicates 
with a port in the cylinder-head through which air is 
conducted to and from the brake-cylinder. 

Air from the main reservoir on the engine, being 
discharged into the train-pipe by the operation of the 
engineer’s brake-valve, enters triple-valve at A , and 
passes thence through ports ee and gg } to piston- 


BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC . 


2 37 


chamber //, forcing the piston 4 to the normal posi¬ 
tion shown, which it occupies when brakes are re¬ 
leased, uncovering feed-port i, permitting the air to 
pass by the piston, thence through port k to chamber 


QUICK ACTION TRIPLE VALVE, 





-W-'"- ^vwvvw " | 












THADTPIPB 




Fig. 120. 


m, occupied by the slide-valve 3, from which it has 
free egress at opening B to the auxiliary reservoir, 
charging the latter to the same pressure as that in the 
train-pipe. 

That portion of the stem of the piston 4 between 




































































238 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

the shoulders u and c is semicircular in form, and 
passes between two flanges of the slide-valve 3, the 
length of the latter being slightly less than the dis¬ 
tance between these shoulders, permitting a limited 
movement of the piston, without moving the slide 
valve. 

The arrangement of the ports in the latter will be 
clearly understood by reference to transparent view in 
Fie. 121. It will also be observed that a corner of the 

o 

slide-valve opposite ports 5 and z is cut away, for 
reasons that will appear later. 

A graduating-valve, 7, is attached to and moves 
with the stem of the piston 4, and extends into a suit¬ 
ably made recess in the slide-valve, opening and clos¬ 
ing port z in the slide-valve. 

Under ordinary conditions of operating the brakes, 

by a slight reduction of pressure in the train-pipe the 

/ 

movement of piston 4 in cylinder h is limited to the 
distance between the knob j and the end of the gradu- 
ating-stem 21, the spring 22 resisting further move¬ 
ment, but which may be compressed by the piston, 
permitting the latter to traverse the entire length of 
the cylinder h, if a rapid discharge of 10 or 12 pounds 
pressure or more is made from the train-pipe. To 
apply the brakes gently, a slight reduction of 6 to 8 
pounds pressure in the train-pipe is made, causing the 
greater pressure remaining in the auxiliary reservoir, 
with which chamber m is in constant communication, 
to force piston 4 to the right, closing feed-port 2, and 
moving the graduating valve away from its seat in 
port z until the shoulder u on the piston-stem, en¬ 
gaging the slide-valve 3, moves it with the piston 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS , VALVES, ETC. 


239 


until the latter is stopped in its traverse, by knob j 
meeting the graduating-stem 21, the spring 22 resist¬ 
ing further movement. In this position port z is op¬ 
posite port r in the valve-seat, and air from the 
auxiliary reservoir passes into the brake-cylinder 
through ports w, z, r , r and C, forcing the piston out¬ 
ward and applying the brakes. 

The pressure in the auxiliary reservoir having now 
been reduced by expansion into the brake-cylinder to 
an amount slightly less than that in the train-pipe, 
piston 4 is forced to the left and graduating-valve 7 
to its seat, closing port z, the slide-valve remaining 
stationary, retaining tlie pressure in the brake-cylinder. 

Further reductions of pressure in the train-pipe, as 
may be desired to apply the brakes with greater force, 
cause the piston 4 to again move to the right against 
graduating-stem 21, pulling graduating-valve 7 from 
its seat, admitting additional pressure from the auxil¬ 
iary reservoir to the brake-cylinder until entirely 
equalized in each, or to about 50 pounds, from an origi¬ 
nal pressure of 70 pounds in the auxiliary reservoir. 
This effect is caused by a reduction of air-pressure in 
the train-pipe of about 20 pounds, from which it will 
be seen that any further reduction is a waste of air, 
and that the force with which the brakes may be 
applied is proportionate to the reduction of pressure 
in the train-pipe within this limit. 

The brakes are released by admitting pressure to the 
train-pipe, which forces piston 4 to the left to the posi¬ 
tion shown, permitting pressure in the brake-cylinder to 
escape to the atmosphere through ports c, r , r and ex- 


240 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


haust-ports n and p, the latter being cored to the at¬ 
mosphere around the valve body. 

The action of the brakes just described is that used 
in ordinary station stoppages, and is termed a “ service 
application,” and is caused, as will have been observed, 
by a gradual discharge of pressure from the main train- 
pipe at the engine. 

To apply the brakes with their full force, a quick 
reduction of the pressure in the train-pipe of io to 
12 pounds is made, causing the piston 4 to move 
through the entire length of its cylinder h, compress¬ 
ing graduating-spring 22, and bringing port j in the 
slide-valve opposite port r in its seat, admitting press¬ 
ure from the auxiliary reservoir to the brake-cylinder, 
at the same time the removed corner of the slide-valve 
3, before referred to, uncovers port t in its seat, admit¬ 
ting auxiliary-reservoir pressure above piston 8, forc¬ 
ing it downward, and emergency - valve 10 from its 
seat; while train-pipe pressure, lifting valve 15, rushes 
to the brake-cylinder through the openings made, in a 
large volume, uniting with that from the auxiliary 
reservoir, giving a pressure on the piston of about 60 
pounds per square inch, from 70 pounds auxiliary- 
reservoir and train-pipe pressure, or about 20 per cent 
greater than from a service application of the brakes. 

The check-valve 15 closing when the pressure is 
equalized, prevents pressure from the brake-cylinder 
re-entering the train-pipe. A restoration of pressure 
in the train-pipe releases the brakes, as already de¬ 
scribed, port t being brought into communication with 
exhaust-port n of the slide-valve, permitting the air 
used in forcing piston 8 downward to escape into the 


BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS , VALVES , ETC. 241 

atmosphere, and spring 12 then restores emergency- 
valve 10 to its seat. 

This action of the brake apparatus, as will have been 
noted, causes a local reduction of train-pipe pressure 
under each car, by discharging this air into the cylin¬ 
der for braking purposes, instead of having it wholly 
pass to the atmosphere at the engine, as was neces¬ 
sarily the case with the plain form of the automatic 
brake apparatus, economizing the use of air-pressure- 
and producing practically instantaneous action of the 
brakes throughout an indefinite length of train ; but 
they should be used in this manner in cases of emer¬ 
gency only. 

To prevent the application from a slight reduction 
of pressure caused by leakage in the train-pipe, an oval 
groove is cut in the bore of the car-cylinder of an 
inch in width and ¥ 5 ¥ of an inch in depth, and of such 
length that the piston must travel three inches before 
the groove is covered by the packing leather. 

A small quantity of air, such as results from a leak, 
passing from the triple-valve into the brake-cylinder, 
may have the effect of moving the piston slightly for¬ 
ward, but not sufficiently to close the groove, which 
permits the air to flow, to the atmosphere past the 
piston. If, however, the brakes are applied in the 
usual manner the piston will be moved forward, not¬ 
withstanding the slight leak, and will cover the groove. 
It is very important that the groove shall be of the 
dimensions given. 

The triple-valve should be drained occasionally of 
any moisture that may accumulate, by the removal of 
the bottom plug. 


242 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


In an “ emergency ” action of the brakes, when, as 
previously stated, air from the train-pipe is vented 
into the brake - cylinder, the strong current of air 
toward the triple-valve carries with it any foreign 
matter in the air-pipes, and this lodging in the 
conical strainer 16, at the union of the branch-pipe 
and the triple - valve, may clog the meshes of the 
strainer and prevent the free passage of air, and should 
therefore be cleaned occasionally, but this may be 
largely avoided if the hose, when not coupled to that 
on adjoining vehicles, is placed in its dummy coupling 
and the air-pipes are carefully blown out with steam 
previous to their erection on the car. 

Should a continuous leak manifest itself at the ex¬ 
haust-port of the triple-valve, or the pressure-retain¬ 
ing valve, it will usually be found to be due to the 
presence of dirt on the seat of the emergency-valve io, 
which should be cleaned. 

On account of slight differences in sizes of ports, 
triple-valves intended for freight or passenger car 
brakes must not be used in the opposite service. 

The passenger - car triple-valve having a letter P 
cast upon its body, may be readily distinguished from 
that intended for freight service. 

THE PLAIN AUTOMATIC TRIPLE-VALVE. 

A perspective view of the plain automatic triple¬ 
valve and locomotive-tender brake apparatus is shown 
in Fig. 123, and cross-sections of the triple-valve in 
Fig. 124, which will clearly show its construction. 

It is desirable that this triple-valve be perpetuated 


BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS , VALVES , ETC. 243 

for use with locomotive driving-wheel and tender 
brakes, to give a slightly slower action to the brakes 
thereon in cases of emergency action of the quick- 
action apparatus on the cars. 



Fig 124. 


The construction and operation of the plain auto¬ 
matic triple-valve is substantially the same as that of 
the quick-action form, the quick-action valves being 
omitted, and pressure used only from the auxiliary 





















































244 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

reservoir in applying the brakes, and will not, there¬ 
fore, require specific description. 

As constructed formerly, the handle, 15, could be 
turned from a horizontal position, which it occupies 
when the brakes are operated as automatic, to a verti¬ 
cal position, permitting the use of the non-automatic 
brake; but as this is now practically obsolete, a lug is 
cast upon this handle which permits it to be turned 
only to an intermediate position, in which the brakes 
are inoperative or shut off on that particular vehicle. 

To drain the cup 3 of moisture, slack the bottom 
nut 10 a few turns, let any water escape, and screw it 
up again. A tender drain-cup should invariably be 
located in the main train-pipe on the tender to catch 
and retain moisture, which would otherwise pass to 
the train-brake apparatus. A cock in this cup readily 
provides for letting out the moisture, which should be 
done frequently. 

THE ENGINEER’S BRAKE AND EQUALIZING-DISCHARGE 

VALVE. 

The Engineer’s Brake and Equalizing - discharge 
Valve, sectional cuts of which are shown on Fies. 
125 and 126, and a plate view in Fig. 127, with the cap- 
nut 12 and rotary-valve 13 removed, is a device de¬ 
signed especially to assist the engineer in operating 
train-brakes in a more perfect manner than has 
hitherto been possible with the three-way cock or 
brake-valves formerly used for this purpose, without 
considerable personal skill from the operator. 

It is of the greatest importance to perfect train- 


BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS, FA EVES, ETC. 


245 


braking that gradual exhaust or discharge of air 
pressure from the train-pipe should be made in apply¬ 
ing the brakes under ordinary conditions of station 
stopping, and a gentle closing or stoppage of this ex¬ 
haust in order to thoroughly equalize the pressure 



To Governor 

PlHE 


* 



* 17 bIh 

■ 1, 






26 


SEfjii si™ 



1 II y 



I 11 IMW 



i bb y .1 m 'y%\ 


Fig. 125. 

remaining in the train-pipe, thus preventing the re¬ 
lease of some of the front brakes of the train, which 
may occur, particularly on long trains, by the abrupt 
opening and closure of the ordinary three-way cock, 
which causes a violent surge of air from the rear to the 
front end of the train, affecting the brakes as stated. 





























246 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 



Fig. 126. 















































































































BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS , VALVES , ^7’C 


2 4 ; 


The brake-valve here illustrated entirely prevents 
this, and mechanically measures the volume of air re- 
quired to be discharged from the train-pipe and limits 
the rate of its discharge when applying the brakes for 
ordinary stoppages , and is equally efficient on short or 
long trains. 

Large openings are provided in its construction for 
the instantaneous application of the brakes in an 
emergency. 

It is absolutely essential in operating the brakes 
upon long trains, and is of great importance on short 
ones, to store a pressure of air in the main reservoir 
on the engine of twenty to twenty-five pounds greater 
than train-pipe and auxiliary-reservoir pressure, which 
will, when discharged into the train-pipe, insure a 
prompt release of all the brakes. 

A full set of engine-brake fixtures includes a pressure- 
gauge having two sets of works, and two indicators 
(red and black) on a single dial, which shows at a 
glance the presence respectively in the main reservoir 
and train-pipe, the connecting pipes being attached to 
the brake-valve at R and W. The air-pipe to the 
pump-governor should be connected at V, the main 
reservoir-pipe at X, and train-pipe at Y. 

By preparing a diagram similar to Fig. 128, represent¬ 
ing the rotary-valve 13 and handle 8, of tracing-cloth 
or other transparent material, cutting the ports a and j 
out of the diagram on their boundary-lines to show 
through openings, and then reversing same and placing 
it upon the seat of the valve, Fig. 127, where it may be 
rotated at will on its centre, the explanation following 
may be made clear. 


248 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 



r^. 

IN 


6 




Fig. 128. 






















































BRAKES, AIR-PUMTS, VALVES, ETC. 249 

By reference to cuts of the valve, it will be seen that 
movement of the handle 8, on which is located aspring 
9 for guiding it to position, operates “ rotary-valve 13” 
upon its seat, opening and closing the various ports as 
required. 

When the handle 8 is in “ position for releasing the 
brake,” air from the main reservoir entering the brake- 
valve at X passes through “ supply-ports ” a and b , 
thence upward into cavity c, in the under surface of 
the rotary-valve 13, then through “ direct application 
and supply-port ” 1 to the pipe at y. 

While yet in this position, port j in the rotary-valve 
and port e in the seat are in communication, and air 
passes into chamber D , above piston 17, thence through 
port s to a small reservoir, which is usually suspended 
under the right running-board of the engine, pipe-con¬ 
nections being made therewith at T. This reservoir 
serves the purpose of increased volume of space to 
chamber D. 

The handle 8 now being placed in “ position while 
running,” direct communication between the train-pipe 
and main reservoir ceases, and port j is brought oppo¬ 
site feed-port f> through which main-reservoir pressure 
now passes to the under side of the feed-valve 21, 
which latter is held to its seat by “ feed-valve spring ” 
20, having a resistance of about twenty pounds. 

When this additional pressure is accumulated in the 
main reservoir, “feed-valve” 21 is forced open, the air 
passing thence through “ feed-port to port 1 and 
the train-pipe, while train-pipe pressure is maintained 
in chamber D through port 1, cavity c and “ equalizing- 
port ” g, thus equalizing the pressure above and below 


250 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

piston 17, the stem of which, forming a valve, is seated 
in the position shown in “ bottom-cap ” 5, and permits 
the escape of air from the train-pipe to the atmosphere 
through ports in and n when raised from its seat. 

When applying brakes for ordinary or station stops, 
move handle 8 to “ on lap ” position. This blanks all 
ports in the rotary-valve and seat. Then moving the 
valve-handle to the position “ application of brakes, 
service-stop,” the small exhaust-cavity p in the lower 
surface of the rotary valve 13 establishes communica¬ 
tion between the two “preliminary exhaust-ports”^ 
and h, the latter leading to the atmosphere, and after 
discharging about 8 pounds of pressure as shown by 
the gauge, restore the handle to “ on lap ” position. 

This preliminary discharge of air from the chamber 
D will cause the piston 17 and its stem to rise, which 
operation is followed by a discharge of air from the 
train-pipe to the atmosphere through ports in and n , 
applying the brakes gently. 

This discharge of air from the train-pipe continues 
after the valve-handle is carried to “ on lap " position 
(gradually equalizing train-pipe pressure), and until the 
train-pipe pressure has been reduced slightly lower than 
that yet remaining in the chamber above the piston , when 
the latter is forced downward and its stem to its seat, 
closing the outlet n, and preventing the further escape 
of air, until the operation is repeated, which may be 
necessary to apply the brakes with the desired degree 
of force. 

To throw off brakes, push handle 8 to “position for 
releasing brakes,” causing the excess of air-pressure in 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC. 


251 


the main reservoir to be discharged into the train-pipe, 
insuring their prompt and certain release. 

For an “emergency” application of brakes, push the 
handle to the extreme right, to position “application 
of brake emergency-stop.” This operation establishes 
direct communication between the train-pipe and the 
atmosphere, through the “direct application and sup¬ 
ply-port” 1, cavity c, and the “direct application and 
exhaust-port ” k, applying the brakes with their full 
force instantly. 

When handling trains on down-grades, let the brake- 
valve handle remain in full release position, except 
when applying brakes, which will insure the full and 
prompt recharging of auxiliary reservoirs under cars. 

If the engineer’s brake-valve bracket is to be located 
against the boiler-head, it must be made of sufficient 
length to prevent injury to the valve-gaskets by heat. 

After being placed in position on the engine, and 
before using, it is a good practice to remove valve 13, 
and wipe its face and seat quite clean of any grit that 
may have lodged thereon in transit ; rub a little tallow 
on the surfaces, and replace. 

Care in this respect will prevent the valve and seat 
from cutting. Any leakage between the valve and 
seat may result in establishing communication between 
the several passages or ports therein, and thus prevent 
the very desirable results for which the valve was par¬ 
ticularly designed. When this occurs it is necessary 
to regrind valve 13, which may be done by carefully 
facing and scraping the surfaces to a good seat, after 
which use a small quantity of fine-ground glass, sieved 


2 $2 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

through cloth of close texture, and a little oil. Usually 
the valve only requires facing. 

It is of the utmost importance that direct communi¬ 
cation be made from the engineer s brake-valve to the 
main reservoir , instead of connecting to the discharge- 
- pipe leading from air-pump to main reservoir. 

The latter practice is very undesirable, as a great 
deal of moisture and oil is discharged into the train- 
brake system which would otherwise be deposited in 
the main reservoir from which it can be readily drained. 

A one-inch stop-cock should be placed in the train- 
pipe, a short distance below the engineer’s brake-valve, 
within convenient reach of the engineer, and should be 
closed upon all but the leading engine of the train, 
where two or more engines are coupled in the same 
train, in order that the head engine may operate the 
train-brakes. 

It is important that the pipe-connections to the 
brake-valve be perfectly air-tight, and that the valve 
should occasionally be cleaned. The feed-valve 21 can 
be readily removed for cleaning by the engineer, by 
placing the valve-handle in “ emergency ” application 
position, which will retain the air in the main reservoir, 
then unscrewing the cap-nut 19. 

This should be done occasionally, as any derange¬ 
ment by which its functions of maintaining an excess 
pressure in the main reservoir is usually found to be 
due to the presence of dirt or gum from the use of too 
much oil or lubricant of an inferior quality. The pis¬ 
ton should also be removed for cleaning, at intervals, 
as the presence of gum interferes with its free move¬ 
ment. 


BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS , VALVES , ETC. 


2 53 


THE PUMP-GOVERNOR. 

The construction of the pump-governor is illustrated 
in cross-section in Fig. 129. Its purpose is to automat¬ 
ically shut off the supply of steam to the pump when 
the air-pressure in the train-pipe and auxiliary reser¬ 
voirs has reached the limit allowable, say 70 pounds, 
this pressure forming the basis upon which the maxi¬ 
mum power of the brake-gear used on cars and en¬ 
gines is designed, thus avoiding excessive air-pressure, 
which, used indiscreetly, will result in sliding wheels. 
With a judicious use of the brake and maintenance of 
pressure to the maximum allowable, sliding of wheels 
may be avoided. 

The simplicity of construction of the governor is 
such that the following description of its mechanism 
will make it readily understood : 

By reference to Fig. 129 it will be seen that suitable 
provisions are made for attaching the end Y of the 
governor directly to the steam-pipe union connection 
of the air-pump, the opposite end X being piped to 
the source of steam-supply. Another pipe connec¬ 
tion, with union swivel 21 at IV, is also made and ex¬ 
tended to the fitting 30, Fig. 125, in the engineer’s brake- 
valve. This fitting, it will be observed, is tapped into 
a port of the brake-valve, which is alivays in direct com¬ 
munication with the train-pipe , the pressure to be gov¬ 
erned, and which, acting upon the under side of the 
flexible diaphragm 19, forces it upward against the 
resistance of the regulating spring 18, when the de¬ 
sired train-pipe pressure has been reached, lifting valve 


2 54 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


Pump Governor. 



Fig. 129, 





























































BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS , VALVES , ^7’C. 


255 


17 from its seat, admitting air-pressure on top of piston 
5, forcing steam-valve 9, with which it is connected by 
stem 7, to its seat, shutting off the supply of steam. 

A reduction of air-pressure in the train-pipe by ap¬ 
plying brakes causes a reverse movement of the gov¬ 
ernor, valve 17 closing, and the pressure contained in 
the chamber above piston 5 leaking away past its 
edges to the atmosphere through the exhaust connec¬ 
tion 10 in cylinder 3. 

Spring 8 thep forces the piston upward, opening 
steam-valve 9, and permitting steam to again pass to 
the pump. Any necessary adjustment of the regular 
spring 18 is readily made by means of nuts 14 and 15. 

A good quality of lubricant should be continuously 
fed to the steam-cylinder of the pump while in opera¬ 
tion. A small quantity of 32 0 gravity West Virginia 
well-oil should be used at intervals in the air-cylinder, 
it being particularly desirable to use a quality of oil 
which will cause the least gummy deposit in the air- 
passages, reducing their dimensions and preventing the 
free discharge of air in the main reservoir. Tallow, 
lard-oil, or kerosene must not be used in the air-cyl¬ 
inder. 

Attention is drawn particularly to the description of 
the brake-valve contained in this work, and the fullest 
advantages should be taken of the opportunity it affords 
for the correct operation of the brakes. 

Care should be taken to discharge six or eight pounds 
of air by the gauge in the first instance in applying 
brakes for ordinary stoppages, which will cause the 
pistons in the brake-cylinders to move outward suffj- 


256 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 

ciently to close the leakage-groove, forcing the brake- 
shoes lightly against the wheels. Further reductions 
of pressure may thereafter be made to suit circum¬ 
stances. 

The brakes are fully applied when the pressure in 
the train-pipe, and as shown on the gauge, has been 
reduced 20 pounds. 

Any further reduction is a waste of air. It is of 
great importance that the engineer should remember 
that the gradual application of the brakes is caused by 
a gentle discharge of air-pressure from the train-pipe to 
the atmosphere, and that a rapid discharge causes the 
quick action of the brakes to ensue. 

It is therefore essential that he exercise some degree 
of care and moderation in applying brakes, taking ad¬ 
vantage of the emergency action of the brakes only 
when absolutely necessary to avoid accidents. 

Engineers, upon finding that the brakes have been 
applied by the trainmen or automatically, must at once 
aid in stopping the train by using the brake-valve as in 
making ordinary stoppages, which will prevent the loss 
of pressure from the main reservoir, and enable the 
prompt release of brakes when necessary. 

It is important that the main reservoir be drained of 
water at regular intervals, especially in moist climates 
and seasons. As much of this accumulation is con¬ 
densed from the steam-cylinder and passes into the air- 
cylinder through imperfectly-packed piston stuffing- 
boxes, care should be taken to avoid this. 

The shoes of driving-wheel brakes should be so 
adjusted, by means of the cam-screws, that the pistons 
move from 3 to 5 inches when the brakes are applied. 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS , VALVES, ETC. 


257 


If cars having different air-pressures be coupled to¬ 
gether, the brakes will apply themselves to those having 
the highest pressures in the auxiliary reservoirs. 

To insure the certain release of all the brakes in the 
train, and also that the reservoirs may be quickly 
charged, the engineer must carry the maximum press¬ 
ure in the main reservoir before connecting to a train. 

On long down-grades it is important to be able to 
control the speed of the train, and at the same time to 
maintain a good working air-pressure. 

This is readily accomplished on ordinary gradients, 
where the pressure-retaining valve is not necessary, by 
running the pump at a good speed, so that a compara¬ 
tively high pressure will have been accumulated in the 
main reservoir while the brakes are on, and which 
when released enables the auxiliary reservoirs to be 
speedily recharged before the speed has increased to 
any considerable extent. 

It should be sought to control the train on any grade 
by the use of the smallest quantity of air possible and 
the fewest number of applications of the brakes. 

QUESTIONS ON 8 " AIR-PUMP, FIG. 11 9 . 

What is the purpose of the third or top piston-head ? 

The third or top piston-head helps to reverse the 
valve-motion and to force the main piston-head or 
valves downward so as to open the bottom port. 

Which piston-head or valve in main valve-chamber 
has the larger diameter ? 

The top one. 

Which is the reversing-valve, and where is it situ¬ 
ated ? 


2 58 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING 

The reversing-valve is the top head of steam-cylin¬ 
der. 

What is the shape of this valve? 

It is a small slide-valve. 

How is it moved ? 

By a valve-rod which extends down into the main 
piston-rod, this rod being hollow. The reverse-valve 
rod has a shoulder on its end, which comes in contact 
with a plate on main steam piston-head, which pulls 
the valve down, and the reverse-valve rod is pushed up 
by the main piston-rod, by the end of reverse-valve 
abutting against the main piston-rod. 

How does the slide-valve reverse the movement of 
pump piston-heads? 

By letting steam in on top of the third or top piston- 
head of valve-motion, also by exhausting from the 
same. Suitable ports are provided for the same. 

How is the air-pressure accumulated 

By the air-pump. 

What are the principal parts of a pump ? 

The steam-cylinder and the air-cylinder. 

Which is the air-cylinder in the Westinghouse 
Pump ? 

The bottom cylinder. 

How is the air drawn into the air-cylinder? 

A piston-head works in the air-cylinder which is 
fastened to the piston-rod, extending to the steam- 
cylinder and also attached to the steam piston-head. 
When the piston goes up and down in cylinder it 
causes a displacement in the air-cylinder, into which 
the atmosphere rushes, filling up the air-cylinder. 

How is the inlet and outlet of air controlled ? 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC. 


259 


By suitable valves called receiving and discharging 
valves. (Fig. 119.) 

How many small piston-heads are in the steam-valve 
motion ? 

Three. Two on the main-valve stem, in the steam- 
chamber, and the third one is in the chamber above 
the main chamber. This head has a stem extending 
through the chamber resting on top of the top piston- 
head in main steam-chamber. 

Why are the piston-heads in main valve-chamber of 
different diameters ? 

In order that the piston-heads which serve as valves 
will move in the direction of the larger head, the steam 
entering between the heads. 

In what do these valves work? 

In bushings forced into the chambers. 

Why is this done ? 

In order that the bushing can be renewed without 
dispensing with the pump when they become much 
worn. 

Describe the movement of the pump in Fig. 119. 

As shown in the figure, the steam is entering the 
lower ports, driving the piston-head upward. The 
exhaust is passing out the upper ports, into the ex¬ 
haust-passages around the pump, to exhaust - pipe. 
The third or top piston-head has steam on the upper 
side, which has forced it down with the main valves. 
When the main steam piston-head is near the end of 
its upward travel, it will strike the reverse-valve rod, 
and that will move the valve over the ports leading to 
top piston-head and exhaust the steam from it, when 


260 locomotive mechanism and engineering. 

the main valves will move upward and open the upper 
ports to drive piston-head downward again. 

How is the piston-rod packed in main pump? 

By a composition packing. 

What is the effect on a pump when this packing 
leaks badly ? 

It makes one end of the pump useless, because the 
air will escape into the atmosphere instead of being 
forced into the reservoir. 

When a pump-piston rod is packed, what is necessary 
to keep it from burning out? 

It should be well lubricated, and kept tight to piston- 
rod, for if it leaks badly around the piston-rod it will 
burn the packing out, for the air under a pressure 
causes a great friction when escaping, which will set 
the packing on fire. Air under pressure gives off its 
latent heat. 

What are the other causes which make an air-pump 
run hot ? 

Running the pump without lubrication in either air 
or steam end, which causes the rings to cut; too high 
air-pressure in reservoir, rapid running of pump, and 
valves gummed up in air-cylinder, which causes an ex¬ 
cessive friction. 

What causes a pump to stop working? 

A reversing-valve rod broken ; plate on piston-head 
loose ; piston valve-rings broken or leaking ; steam 
passage to reversing-valve stopped; bottom or air- 
cylinder piston-head broken off from piston-rod. 


BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS , VALVES, ETC . 


26t 


THE NINE-AND-ONE-HALF-INCH IMPROVED WESTING- 

HOUSE AIR-PUMP. 

It will be seen from the cuts of the Nine-and-one- 
half-inch Pump, here presented, that the valve-motion 
is entirely in the top head of the steam-cylinder, while 
in the ordinary eight-inch pump a portion of it is 
located in the steam-cylinder proper. In repairing the 
valve-motion it has heretofore been necessary to get at 
both the steam-cylinder and the top head, but in the 
new pump, as all of the moving parts are concentrated 
in the top head alone, its repair is greatly facilitated. A 
square-top head can be carried on the locomotive and 
readily substituted for a defective one during a run 
should there be any necessity for an operation of this 
kind. The number of parts of the valve-motion has 
been considerably reduced, and they are less delicate 
constructively than those used in our standard eight- 
inch pump. 

The principal improvement in the air-cylinder is in 
the arrangement of the air-valves. Each one is con¬ 
tained in a separate case, and all are made of the same 
size. It is til erefore necessary to carry but one kind in 
stock for the complete repair of this portion of the air- 
pump. By this general arrangement the lift of each 
valve is controlled by an ample contact surface with 
the cap of the valve-case, or with the case itself, and a 
change in the lift of one valve has no effect upon any 
of the others. An air-strainer is provided for the inlet 
opening, which is on the left side of the pump, and so 
located as to offer the least chance for taking dust and 


262 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


cinders in the air-cylinder. In all matters of detail, 
such as the size of the bolts and proportioning of parts, 



great care has been exercised to make them ample for 
their intended use. We have carefully examined into 











































































































































BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALUES, ETC. 263 


the nature of the repairs that we have heretofore fur¬ 
nished on our standard pump, and have been guided by 
our observations on this point in the character of some 
of the changes made in detail construction. This 
pump, as compared with our standard eight-inch 
pump, has an increased capacity of 65 per cent, and to 
compress a given amount of air at 90 pounds requires 
20 per cent less of steam. 

Description .—As will be seen by reference to Figs. 135 



Fig. 131. Old Style. Fig. 132. 


and 136, the valve-motion of the pump consists of two 
pistons 77 and 79 of unequal diameter, mounted on rod 
76, while a slide-valve 83, of the D type, held in position 
between them, provides for the distribution of steam to 
the upper and lower sides of main steam-piston 65, as re¬ 
quired. Steam enters the pump at X, where a suitable 
stud and nut admit of the direct attachment of the 
pump-governor, and by means of passages a and a\ 
and port a 2 , is admitted to slide-valve chamber A , be¬ 
tween the two pistons 77 and 79, where, by reason of 
the greater area of the former, tends to force it to the 
right to the position in which the valve is shown in 


















































































264 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

Fig. 135, thus admitting steam to the under side of main 
piston 65 through port b and passages b l and b\ forcing 
it upward, while the steam previously used on the op¬ 
posite side in forcing the main piston downward is ex¬ 
hausted to the atmosphere through passage c , port d> 
cavity B of the slide-valve 83, port d, and passage d 1 
and d ' 1 at the connection Y, from whence it is conveyed 
by suitable pipe to the smoke-box of the locomotive. 

In Fig. 135^ is illustrated an outside view of main- 



valve bushing 75, showing the several ports and steam- 
passages therein, of which port t communicates between 
chamber E in the main-valve head 85 and exhaust-pas¬ 
sage f\ and hence is in constant communication with 
the outside atmosphere, relieving the pressure on the 
surface of main-valve piston 79 exposed to chamber E. 
A reversing-valve 72 operates in chamber C in the 
centre of the steam-cylinder head, steam being supplied 
thereto from slide-valve chamber A through ports e and 
e\ and which is given motion through the medium of a 
rod 71 extending into the space k of the hollow main- 
piston rod. The duty of this valve is that of admitting 
steam to and exhausting it from space D between main- 




























BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC. 


265 


valve piston 77 and the head 84, and is shown in Fig. 135 
in position to exhaust the steam previously used, from 
the space/} through port h (Fig. 136), port /d, reversing- 
valve cavity H , and ports f and f l to the main exhaust- 
ports d and d 1 and d 2 . 

It will at once be apparent, having described how the 
surface of main-valve pistons 77 and 79 exposed in 



Fig. 134.— Retaining-valve (set). 


chambers D , and E, respectively, being free from press¬ 
ure other than the outside atmosphere, that the steam 
on the opposite side in chamber A is exerting a force 
in both directions, but the total force toward the right 
is greater by the sum of the steam-pressure in chamber 
A multiplied into the difference between their areas. 
This effect, however, is reversed when the main piston, 
approaching the upward termination of its stroke, 
strikes the shoulder j of the reversing-valve rod 71, forc¬ 
ing the rod and its valve 72 upward, causing the admis¬ 
sion of steam from chamber C to chamber D through 


















206 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 



Fig. 135 


Fig. 135a. 































































































































































BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC. 


267 



JQJiS CD" 


Fig 136 
















































































268 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

ports g and g x (Fig. 136), thus balancing the pressure on 
both sides of main-valve piston 77, when the steam in 
chamber A, acting upon the effective area presented to 
it of main-valve piston 79, forces it to the left, and live 
steam is again admitted to the upper side of main 
steam-piston 65, exhausting from the opposite side, 
and forcing it downward until at the lower termination 
of its stroke the button-head on the lower end of the 
reversing-valve stem 71 comes in contact with revers- 
ing-valve plate 69, again moving reversing-valve 72 to 
the position shown in Fig. 136, completing the cycle of 
its movement. 

Coincident with the reciprocal movements of the 
main steam and air pistons, air from the outside atmos¬ 
phere is drawn alternately into the respective ends of 
the air-cylinder 63, through the screened inlet 106 at W y 
chamber F, and receiving-valves 86 to the left, Fig. 135, 
and from thence discharged under pressure through 
discharge-valves 86 to the right, Fig. 135, to chamber G 
and the main reservoir, to which the pump should be 
connected by one and one-fourth inch pipe at Z. The 
lift of receiving and discharge valves 86 should be three 
thirty-seconds of an inch. 

THE IMPROVED ENGINEER’S BRAKE AND 
EQUALIZING-DISCHARGE VALVE, WITH FEED- 
VALVE ATTACHMENT. 

In the construction of the new engineer’s brake and 
Equalizing-discharge Valve, with feed-valve attach¬ 
ment, two important improvements have been made, 
one operative and the other constructive. 

In operation, this valve is so arranged that when the 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS , FA LUES, ETC. 


269 


handle is in “ running position ” the pressure in the 
train-pipe is automatically cut off when it reaches 70 
pounds, regardless of any higher pressure that may be 
in the main reservoir, and any loss in the train-pipe, 
due to leakage, is automatically supplied. The amount 
of excess pressure to be carried in the main reservoir 
for the purpose of recharging and releasing promptly 
is regulated by the pump-governor, which is adjusted 
to stop the pump when the maximum pressure has 
been reached therein. The construction of the pre¬ 
vious engineer’s brake and equalizing-discharge valve 
(Fig. 126) is such that when the handle is in “ running 
position ” the regulation of pressure in the train-pipe 
is dependent upon the operation of the pump-governor, 
and the amount of excess pressure in the main reser¬ 
voir is controlled by what is called an excess-pressure 
valve, but which is more accurately described as a 
valve for creating a predetermined difference of press¬ 
ure between the main reservoir and train-pipe. This 
valve is usually so adjusted that when a pressure in the 
main reservoir of 20 pounds in excess of that in the 
train-pipe is reached it will open and supply air to the 
train-pipe, but no communication between the main 
reservoir and the train-pipe exists until this difference 
in pressure is secured. It is therefore evident that 
when the handle of the engineer’s valve is returned to 
“ running position,” after having been placed in full 
release position (in which latter position the pressure 
in the main reservoir and train-pipe equalizes), it is 
necessary to accumulate an excess pressure of 20 
pounds in the main reservoir before air can pass the 
excess pressure-valve to supply any deficiency in the 


2/0 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

train-pipe, due to leakage or the charging of auxiliary 
reservoirs. 

From the above explanation it will be seen that the 
differences in operation between these two valves are : 



Fig. 137. 


First. With the new valve air is automatically sup¬ 
plied to the train-pipe until 70 pounds pressure is 
reached, if there is a pressure of 70 pounds or greater 
in the main reservoir. Train-pipe pressure in the pre- 


To Small RcscrvoiR 































































































BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS, VALVES , ETC. 


271 


vious valve is regulated by the pump-governor. It there¬ 
fore dispense with the pump-governor for the purpose 
of controlling train-pipe pressure with the new valve. 

Second. With the new valve, when the handle is in 
“ running position,” provision is made for constantly 
supplying the train-pipe with air for any loss of press- 



I. Position 


W-Bcle.asinc Brake. 


(QU/UtfING 



1 ' 2 
4 

44 L 

1 !w 




M 

49 

j 

50 


To Smau flcSERVoiB 


Fig. 138. 

ure due to leakage at the pipe-joints, or from other 
sources. With the old valve it is necessary to have an 
excess pressure in the main reservoir of not less than 
20 pounds before air can be supplied to the train-pipe 
for the purpose of compensating for leakages when the 
handle of the valve is in “ running position.” 

Third. With the new valve, the only duty of the 
































2J2 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

pump-governor is to regulate the degree of excess 
pressure in the main reservoir, and as this may, and 
often should be, varied within considerable limits, the 
sensitive and delicate operation of the pump-governor 
is not essential. A desired variation of excess pressure 
is readily had by an adjustment of the tension-nut of 
the governor-spring. With the old valve the governo 
regulates train-pipe pressure, and accurate adjustment 
is imperative to accomplish effective braking. Excess 
pressure is regulated by the tension of a spring con¬ 
trolling an excess-pressure valve, and cannot be changed 
except by the substitution of different springs and a 
readjustment of the pump-governor. 

Constructively, the principal feature of the new valve 
is an opportunity for the removal of all of the opera¬ 
tive portions for inspection or repair, without breaking 
or disturbing any of the pipe connections. The main 
rotary valve and its seat are made of different metals 
which reduces the effect of wear to a minimum. 

Description .—Pipe connections must be made to the 
main reservoir at X, to the train-pipe at V, to the 
equalizing-reservoir at T, and to the duplex gauge at 
R and W f respectively for main reservoir and train-pipe 
pressures. The gauge-pipe from R should be extended 
to the air-pump governor, which latter device should 
be set to stop the pump at 85 to 100 pounds press¬ 
ure, thus providing for an excess pressure of 15 to 30 
pounds above standard train pipe pressure of 70 pounds 
per square inch. The amount of excess pressure re¬ 
quired depends upon the length of trains and character 
of the road—whether level or with long and severe 
gradients. Ordinarily 15 to 20 pounds excess pressure 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC . 


273 


is ample for the safe operation of brakes on the ordi¬ 
nary railway. 

While the handle is in position i, “for releasing 
brakes,” * air from the main reservoir enters the brake- 
valve at X, passing through ports A, A, thence through 
port a in the rotary valve 43 to the port b in its seat 
33, thence upward into cavity c of the rotary valve, 
and finally to ports l and l 1 and the train-pipe at Y. 
Port j in the rotary valve and e in its seat are in 
register in this position, and admit air to chamber D 
above equalizing-piston 47, and passing thence through 
ports s and s, charges the small equalizing-reservoir 
connected at T. The train-pipe and auxiliary reser¬ 
voirs of the brake apparatus being charged, the handle 
38 of the brake-valve being moved to 2, “ position 
while running,” ports a and b , and j and e , are no 
longer in communication, and air then reaches the 
train-pipe through port j in the rotary valve 43, and 
ports f and f 1 in its seat 33, passing thence through 
feed valve 63 to port i, ports / and Z 1 to the train-pipe, 
and continues to flow thereto until the pressure in 
chamber B upon diagram 72 exceeds the resistance of 
spring 68, and, forcing the diaphragm and its attach¬ 
ments downward, feed-valve 63 closes until such time 
as by reason of any leaks in the train-pipe the pressure 
therein has been reduced below 70 pounds, when the 
valve 63 is again automatically pushed open by the 
diaphragm rising, . replenishing train-pipe pressure. 
Equalizing-port g is now in communication with cham¬ 
ber D, maintaining train-pipe pressure therein, through 
ports l\ /, and cavity C in the rotary-valve 43. The 


* See Figs. 13S and 139. 




274 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

necessary adjustment of spring 68 is readily accom¬ 
plished by means of adjusting-nut 70, to which access 
is had by the removal of cap check-nut 71. 

To apply the brakes the handle 38 of the valve is 
moved to position 4, “ application of brake—service 
stop,” bringing into conjunction port p (a groove in 
the under side of rotary valve 43) and ports e and h 
(the latter also a groove) in its seat, causing air to any 
desired extent to be discharged to the atmosphere 
from the chamber D above piston 47 and the equaliz¬ 
ing-reservoir, through the large direct-application and 
exhaust port k , thus reducing the pressure above piston 
47 and causing that in the train-pipe below to force it 
upward from its seat, permitting air to flow from the 
train-pipe through ports m, n, and n 1 to the atmosphere 
through exhaust-connection 51. The desired reduc¬ 
tion of pressure in chamber D being made, the handle 
of the valve is moved backward to position 3, “ on 
lap.” It must be borne in mind that after the handle 
of the valve has been moved to lap position air will 
continue to flow from exhaust-fitting 51 until the 
pressure in the train-pipe has been reduced to an 
amount approximating that in chamber D. Ordinarily, 
a reduction of 6 to 8 pounds pressure by the gauge 
from chamber D is sufficient to apply the brakes in 
the first instance slightly, and will cause a correspond¬ 
ing reduction of train-pipe pressure by the rising of 
piston 47, which latter, when such reduction has taken 
place, is automatically forced to its seat by the pre¬ 
ponderance of pressure on its upper surface from air 
remaining in chamber D. 

The release of the brakes is effected by moving the 


BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS , VALVES ,, IiTC. 


275 


valve-handle 38 to “ position for releasing brake," 
causing air from the main reservoir to again freely flow 





FEEO VaIVS 


p 

[1 

154) 

1 ; 




^ 


52 




Fig. 139. 


to the train-pipe, forcing the triple-valve pistons to 
release position, and exhausting air used in applying 


















































































































































276 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


the brakes and recharging the auxiliary reservoirs. 
While the handle of the valve is in this position a 
“ warning-port ” of quite small size causes air from the 
main reservoir to be discharged to the atmosphere 
with considerable noise, attracting the engineer’s at¬ 
tention to his neglect to move the valve-handle to 
“running position.” The engineer must move the 
handle of the brake-valve from position 1 to position 2 
prior to the accumulation of the maximum pressure of 



70 pounds allowed in the train-pipe, so that the ferd- 
valve attachment may properly perform its functions 
of governing train-pipe pressure ; otherwise the privi¬ 
leged pressure in the train-pipe may be considerably 
augmented, which must be carefully avoided. With 
trains of ordinary length it will be found that the 
brakes can be readily released and the auxiliary reser¬ 
voirs promptly recharged by simply returning the 
handle to “running position ” (2). 

For an emergency application the handle 38 of the 
brake-valve is moved to the extreme right, position 5, 
“ application of brake—emergency-stop,” when “ direct- 
application and exhaust port ” k and “ direct-applica¬ 
tion and supply port ” / are brought into conjunction 
by means of a large cavity c in the under surface of the 














































BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALUES, ETC . 277 

rotary valve 43, thus admitting of the discharge from 
the train-pipe of a large volume of air to the atmos¬ 
phere, causing the quick action of the brakes. Such 
action, however, should be employed only in an 
emergency. A reduction of 20 to 25 pounds pressure 
in the train-pipe at the brake-valve is sufficient to 
apply the brakes to their maximum, and any further 
reduction of pressure is consequently a waste of air. 
It will be noted that this valve is manipulated in the 



same manner as the preceding pattern, and that addi¬ 
tional instructions in this respect to engineers are 
unnecessary. 

An excess-pressure-valve arrangement, illustrated in 
Fig. 141, may be substituted for the feed-valve if desired, 
restoring that feature substantially as arranged in the 
Fig. 126 form of engineer’s brake-valve, and in that 
event the pump-governor should be similarly connected 
to the train-pipe, and for which purpose suitable pro¬ 
vision is made when new brake-valves are ordered 
accordingly. 

By preparing a diagram of tracing-cloth or gelatine 
similar to Fig. 140, and placing it in a reversed position 

































278 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


on Fig, 138, where it may be rotated on a centre, the 
foregoing explanation may be followed with ease by 
those interested. 

In erecting the valve on a locomotive it should be 
placed at a reasonable distance from the boiler, in 
order to prevent its gaskets drying out and shrinking, 
and care taken to make the pipe-joints absolutely 
tight. After it has been erected, and all of the con¬ 
necting pipes have been carefully blown out, it is 
advised that rotary valve 43 be removed and a little 
tallow be rubbed on its surface and its seat, then 
replaced. The valve should occasionally be removed 
and cleansed of the gummy deposits which will be 
found thereon, the extent of which will be determined 
by the amount of oil used in the air-cylinder of the 
pump. 

THE THREE-FOURTHS-INCH IMPROVED FUMP- 

GOVERNOR. 

The improvements in the new Three-fourths-inch 
Pump-governor illustrated have been dictated largely 
by past experience, and it is believed the source of 
complaints in earlier constructions have been entirely 
eliminated. 

Three notable changes have been made: 

First. The adjusting-spring has been made more 
substantial and resilient, and consequently more sensi¬ 
tive to variations in pressure. 

Second. The form of steam-valve has been modified 
to lessen the abrading effect of steam and the obstruc¬ 
tion of its passage to the pump. 



Fig. 142. 































































































































2oO LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 



TO PUMP 


Fig. 143. * 


* 1 -inch Governor. 





































































































BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS , VALVES, ETC. 


28l 


Third. The diaphragm is composed of two thin 
sheets of metal, making it more sensitive to variations 
of pressure than with the single plate formerly used, 
and is supported by metallic walls in such a manner as 
to make its distortion under extreme pressures prac¬ 
tically impossible. 

Description .—Air under pressure entering the gover¬ 
nor at fitting 70 acts upon the under side of the dia¬ 
phragm 67 and forces the latter upward when the max¬ 
imum pressure for which the governor has been ad- 




35 36 

Fig. 145. 


justed has been reached, lifting the small conical-shaped 
valve attached from its seat, and admitting air above 
piston 53, forcing the latter and its steam-valve down¬ 
ward, shutting off steam to the pump. By relieving 
the pressure under the diaphragm, in operating the 
brakes, the conical valve referred to is again seated, 
and the pressure in the space above piston 53 leaking 
away to the atmosphere past the piston and through 
fittings 60 and 61, steam-pressure under the valve 51, 
aided by spring 56, forces the steam-valve open to its 
normal position shown in the illustration, again admit¬ 
ting steam to the pump. 

When the pump-governor is used in connection 


























282 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


with an engineer’s brake-valve fitted with a feed-valve, 
the union swivel 70 must be connected by suitable 
pipe to the main reservoir, and likewise must be con¬ 
nected to the train-pipe when used in connection with 
an engineer’s brake-valve having an excess-pressure 
valve in its construction. In either case suitable 
attachments are provided on the brake-valve. 

If the governor is attached to the train-pipe, it 
should be adjusted to stop the pump at 70 pounds 
pressure per square inch ; if coupled to the main reser¬ 
voir, it should be adjusted to stop the pump at 85 to 
100 pounds pressure, as the amount of excess pressure 
required is dependent upon the length of trains and 
the character of the road—whether level, or with long 
and heavy gradients. Ordinarily 15 to 20 pounds 
excess pressure is ample for the safe operation of 
brakes on the ordinary railway. 

Required adjustments of the governor for desired 
pressures at which it will stop the pump are readily 
made by means of regulating-nut 65, to which access 
is had by the removal of cap-nut 64. 

THE MASON AIR-BRAKE PUMP-REGULATOR. 

This regulator is designed to automatically control 
the air-pressure in the brake system for operating the 
brakes on railroad cars. It is placed in the steam- 
supply pipe leading to the air-pump, and regulates the 
amount of steam passing to pump, and allowing the 
pump to run just sufficiently to maintain the desired 
air-pressure in the train service-pipe. 

Description *—The principle on which the Mason Air- 


* Figs. 146 and 147. 





BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS-, VALUES, ETC. 283 


brake Regulator works is that of an auxiliary-valve 8, 
controlled by the air-pressure from the train service- 
pipe, through the medium of a metal diaphragm 24, and 
admits steam from the initial side of regulators through 
a port to operate a piston 19, which in turn opens the 


Fig. 146.—General View of Mason Pump-regulator. 



main-valve 21, and admits steam to the pump. By re¬ 
ferring to the sectional view, it will be seen that the 
steam enters the regulator at the side marked “ steam 
from boiler,” a small portion of it passing up through 
the passage XX to the auxiliary-valve 8. This valve 














































284 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

8 is forced open by the compression of the large spiral 
spring 5 acting on the cricket through the diaphragm. 
This cricket 6 has three studs projecting down from 
the rim, which pass through three loosely fitting holes 
in the bonnet, the lower ends resting on a button 11 
which sits on the diaphragm, so that in opening the 
valve 8 the diaphragm is also forced down. As soon 
as the valve 8 is opened, steam passes through and 
into port Z , down under piston 19. By raising this 
piston 19 the main-valve 21 is opened against the 
initial pressure, since the area of valve 21 is only one 
half of that of piston 19. Steam is thus admitted to 
the pump. A connection with the main air-pipe is 
made as indicated ; and by a passage air enters the 
chamber below the diaphragm, which carries the 
cricket 8, as before stated. When the pressure in the 
air-pipe 16 and chamber O has risen to the required 
point, which is determined by the tension of the spring 
5, the diaphragm is forced upward by the air-pressure 
in the chamber, carrying with it the cricket 6, and 
allowing valve 8 to close, shuttin goff the steam from 
piston 19. The main-valve 21 is now forced to its 
seat by the initial pressure, shutting off steam from 
the pump and pushing the piston 19 down to the 
bottom of its stroke. The steam beneath this piston 
exhausts freely around it — the piston being fitted 
loosely for this purpose—and passes off into the pump. 
The leakage past the auxiliary-valve 8 passes up under 
the cricket and out into the spring-case, where it 
makes its escape down through the cricket-holes to 
the upper side of the diaphragm and into the drip. It 
will be seen from this that when the pressure in the 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC . 285 

brake-pipe has reached a predetermined point the 
pump will be automatically stopped ; and when the 



Fig. 147. 

pressure in the brake-pipe is reduced by applying the 
brakes the pump will quickly produce a surplus press- 





























































286 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


ure in the main reservoir to insure the speedy release 
of the brakes and recharge the auxiliary reservoirs. 
The piston 19 is fitted with a dash-pot, which prevents 
chattering or pounding when the air-pressure is sud¬ 
denly reduced. 

Directions for Attaching the Regulator .—Place the 
regulator in the steam-supply pipe to the pump, and 
so that steam will flow through it in the direction 
indicated by the arrow cast on the body. With a 
small pipe make a connection from the train-pipe to 
the air-pressure connection 15 and 16 on regulator. 
The one-eighth-inch tapped hole marked “ Drip ” must 
be left open, but it may drip from either side by re¬ 
versing the plug. 

Before connecting the regulator to pump, the steam- 
pipe should be thoroughly blown out, in order to 
expel all dirt. If the piping is new, steam should be 
allowed to flow through slowly for some little time, in 
order to burn off all gummy oil and grease, which 
would otherwise be carried into the regulator, and thus 
clog the working parts. 

When ready to start, open both steam and air valve 
wide, then remove the cap 1 which screws over the 
screw 2, slack off the jam-nut 3, and with the key 
gradually screw down the adjusting screw 2 until the 
desired air-pressure is obtained. The regulator is then 
properly set. Screw the jam-nut 3 down firm and 
replace the cap 1. 

If the regulator should fail to hold the desired press¬ 
ure, it will probably be due to the fact that some dirt 
or chips from the pipe have lodged on the seat of the 
main-valve 21, or possibly under the auxiliarv-valve 8. 


BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS , VALVES , ETC. 287 


To open the regulator proceed as follows: Shut off 
both steam and air pressure from the regulator. Re¬ 
move the cap 1, and with the key unscrew the adjust¬ 
ing-screw 2 until all tension is removed from spring 5. 
Then take out the screws 9, and remove bonnet 7, 
diaphragm 14, and button 11. Take out the plug 12 
and the spring 22. The threaded rod which accom¬ 
panies each regulator can then be screwed into valve 
21, which should work easily. Pull out this valve 
and examine both valve and seat, cleaning them thor¬ 
oughly. Then insert the rod through the valve-stem, 
guide, screw it into the piston 19, and see if it works 
up and down easily. It will not be found possible to 
raise it suddenly, as the dash-pot piston 20 will restrain 
it. After pulling up, let go of the rod suddenly, and 
if the piston drops easily it is all right. In case it does 
not, unscrew the dash-pot cap 20 from bottom of the 
regulator, pull out the piston 19, and clean it with 
kerosene or spirits. If it seems somewhat tight, rub it 
with fine emery-cloth, being very careful to thoroughly 
wipe it off before replacing. Before screwing on the 
bonnet, examine the auxiliary-valve 8. To do this, 
remove the slot-headed plug 25 in bottom of bonnet, 
also the small spring 10. The valve 8 can then be 
taken out and examined. This valve should work 
perfectly free. I11 taking out the plug 25 there may 
be a burr, caused by the screw-driver, which should be 
dressed down before replacing, as this plug forms a 
guide to centralize the diaphragm button 11, which 
should fit over it freely. In replacing the bonnet 7, be 
sure that the zero-marks on the side and those on the 
body correspond ; also see that the diaphragm 24 is 


2 88 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


replaced so that the port-holes in it correspond with 
the holes in the body. Carefully clean the diaphragm 
as well as the place where it makes its seat. Do not 
use washers or gaskets of rubber, or any other com¬ 
pound, in making connections. They will burn, and 
the pieces will get into the regulator. Two copper 
gaskets are sent with each regulator for making the 
steam connections. 

THE NEW YORK AIR-BRAKE SYSTEM. 

The New York Air-brake is perfectly interchange¬ 
able with the Westinghouse equipment, and cars 
equipped with either brake can be indiscriminately 
mixed in a train and handled with equal facility by the 
engine equipment of either system; or a New York 
air-pump, triple-valve, etc., can be used in connection 
with the Westinghouse apparatus, and vice versa. This 
perfect interchangeability permits any railroad com¬ 
pany to adopt the New York Air-brake apparatus 
either wholly or in part without interfering in any way 
with its method of operating, and thus the greater 
efficiency and durability of the New York apparatus 
can be readily secured without incurring the annoy¬ 
ances which would ensue if the brake were not inter¬ 
changeable with the Westinghouse system now in 
general use. 

The New York Quick-action Air-brake consists of 
the following principal parts: 

i. The Duplex Pump, which compresses the air. The 
duplex action is extremely easy working, and gives 
much greater efficiency than the ordinary single-acting 


BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC. 289 


pump, while the construction is very simple, and every 
valve can be readily examined by unscrewing a plug. 
The advantages of such simple construction, both in 
convenience and durability, are evident. Another ad¬ 
vantage is that the steam-cylinders are at the bottom, 
and therefore the drainage is perfectly natural, while 
the air-cylinders are above the steam-cylinders, thus 
insuring clean and dry air, as impurities and the con¬ 
densation from steam-cylinders cannot leak into the 
air-chambers. 

2. The Main Reservoir , in which the compressed air 
is stored on the engine, and in which a greater press¬ 
ure is maintained than in the other reservoirs or train- 
pipe to assist in releasing the brakes promptly. 

3. The Engineer s Equalizing-discharge Brake-valve , 
which regulates the flow of air into the train-pipe and 
auxiliary reservoirs to charge the train and release 
brakes, and from the train-pipe to the atmosphere for 
applying brakes. The New York Engineer’s Valve is 
less complicated, and its operation easier to understand 
than the valves heretofore used, and is so constructed 
that the use of a separate “ equalizing-reservoir ” is 
entirely avoided. 

4. The Train-pipe , which leads from the main reser¬ 
voir to the engineer’s-valve, and thence throughout the 
train, supplying air to the apparatus on each car. Va¬ 
riations of the pressure maintained in the train-pipe 
causes the apparatus on each car to operate so as to 
apply or release the brakes. 

5. The Auxiliary Reservoir , which receives air-press¬ 
ure from the train-pipe, and stores it for use on each car 


29O LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

or engine, the air being allowed to pass into the brake- 
cylinder when an application of the brakes is desired. 

The brake-cylinder, which forces the shoes against 
the wheels when air-pressure from the auxiliary reser¬ 
voir is admitted against the piston, the end of the pis¬ 
ton-rod being suitably connected to the brake-levers. 
Around the piston-rod, inside of the brake-cylinder, is 
a large spring, which is compressed by the action of 
the piston when applying brakes, and which expands 
when the brakes are released, thus causing the piston 
to recede to its former position and draw the shoes 
away from the wheels. 

7. The Quick-action Aiitomatic Triple-valve , which is 
connected to the train-pipe, auxiliary reservoir, and 
brake-cylinder, and is so constructed that variations of 
pressure in the train-pipe will operate it, causing a 
moderate application of the brakes or an instantaneous 
and forcible application, as desired. The operation is 
as follows: When the train-pipe pressure is reduced 
five pounds or more the auxiliary reservoir is cut off 
from the train-pipe, and air-pressure is admitted from 
auxiliary reservoir into the brake-cylinder proportion¬ 
ately to the reduction of train-pipe pressure. A sharp 
reduction of the train-pipe pressure of fifteen or twenty 
pounds produces the same effect, and also admits air 
direct from the train-pipe into the brake-cylinder, thus 
applying the brakes instantly, and with about 20 per 
cent greater force than when the train-pipe pressure is 
not utilized in this manner. The quick reduction of 
train-pipe pressure at each car by this means rapidly 
operates the valves on succeeding cars, so that the 


BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS , VALVES , ETC. 


29I 


action of all brakes in the train is practically instanta¬ 
neous. 

The following are also parts of the brake equip¬ 
ment : 

The Plain Triple-valve, which is used only on engine 
and tender. It is of the same construction as the 
quick action valve previously described, except that 
the emergency or quick-action parts are omitted, leav¬ 
ing only the service mechanism. 

As the valves on locomotive and tender are always 
the first to receive pressure, and it is not desirable to 
have the locomotive and tender brakes operate before 
those on the train, the plain triple-valves are always 
used here, as they answer the requirements perfectly. 

The Pump-governor, which regulates the amount of 
steam supplied to the pump, and shuts off steam when 
the maximum air-pressure has been accumulated in the 
train-pipe and reservoirs. 

The Duplex Air-gauge, which shows simultaneously 
the pressure in the main reservoir and in the train- 
pipe. 

The Conductor’s Valve, which is placed in passenger 
cars and connected with a cord running the entire 
length of the car, so that any of the trainmen, by pull¬ 
ing this cord, can open the valve, which allows the air 
to escape from the train-pipe and apply the brakes. It 
is intended for use only when it is desirable or neces¬ 
sary to stop the train without depending upon or wait¬ 
ing for the engineer to do so. 

o o 

The Couplings, which are attached to rubber hose, 
and connect the train-pipe from one car to another. 

The Pressure-retaining Valve, which is used upon 


292 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

freight cars for retaining about fifteen pounds pressure 
in the brake-cylinders while descending heavy grades. 
It is a weighted valve of such size that fifteen pounds 
pressure is required to raise it, and is connected by 
suitable piping to the exhaust-port of triple-valve. It 
is provided with a small cock, and when handle is 
placed in horizontal position the air issuing from ex¬ 
haust-port of triple-valve when brakes are released has 
to lift the weight before escaping to the atmosphere, 
and as this does not affect the working of the triple¬ 
valve, the brakes will remain on and check the speed of 
train while the auxiliary reservoirs are recharging. 
With handle turned down the brakes release as usual, 
the escaping air having a free passage to the atmos¬ 
phere without passing the weighted valve. 

DUPLEX AIR-PUMP. 

Fig. 148 shows the No. 1 duplex air-pump, which 
is adapted for passenger and light freight locomotives. 
The duplex action is extremely easy, and gives much 
greater efficiency than the ordinary single-acting 
pump.* The steam-cylinders are underneath the air- 
cylinders, which allows natural drainage and insures 
clean, dry air, as impurities and the condensation from 
steam-cylinders cannot leak into the air-chambers. 
The action of the pump in compressing air is similar 
to that of using steam in a compound engine, and re¬ 
sults in a corresponding economy; both steam-cylin¬ 
ders and the high-pressure air-cylinder are 5" in diam¬ 
eter. The low-pressure air-cylinder is 7", and is twice 
the capacity of the steam-cylinder that actuates it. In 


* Manufacturer’s claim. 




Fig. 148 























































294 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

operation both air-cylinders are filled with free air. The 
high-pressure piston remains quiet until the air from 
the large cylinder is compressed into a small cylinder, 
then the high-pressure piston completes the compres¬ 
sion and forces the air into the reservoir. Thus two 
measures of steam compress three measures of air. The 
valve-gear for the steam-cylinder consists of two plain 
slide-valves 5 and 6, moving in steam-chests 16 and 17, 
and operated by small tappet-rods 7 and 8, which ex¬ 
tend into the hollow piston-rods of the steam-cylinders. 
As is shown, the valve on one side controls the supply 
of steam on the opposite side. 

The following description will make clear the action 
of the pump: 

In the position shown, the air-piston in cylinder 4 
has completed its downward stroke, and compressed 
its contents through valve 12 into cylinder 3. The 
plate 20 on steam-piston 21 has moved valve 6 to its 
lowest position. This admits steam through ports 23, 
24, 25 to upper side of piston 22, and will cause that 
piston to descend and expel the partially compressed 
air in cylinder 3 through valve 14 and passage shown 
into the reservoir. Meanwhile the cylinder 4 has be¬ 
come filled above the piston with air at atmospheric 
pressure through valve 9, and the cylinder 3 will be 
filled with air at atmospheric pressure through valves 
9 and 11, both of which open inward and are seated 
by gravity. When piston 22 reaches the end of its 
downward stroke the plate 20 strikes the tappet on 
valve-stem 7 and moves valve 5 to its lowest position, 
thus uncovering port 26 and admitting steam through 
port 26 to the lower side of piston 21, thus causing 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS , VALVES , ETC. 295 

piston 21 to rise and compress the air which is in cylin¬ 
der 4, through valve 11 into upper part of cylinder 3. 
Just as piston 21 completes its stroke, its plate 20 
strikes the tappet on valve-stem 8 and moves valve 6 
to its highest position, uncovering port 27 and admit¬ 
ting steam through port 27 to the lower side of piston 
22, causing that piston to rise and expel the partially 
compressed air in cylinder 3, through valve 13 into 
passage shown, and thence into the reservoir. 

While the pistons are compressing the air above 
them into the reservoir, the air-cylinders below the 
pistons will be filled with air at atmospheric pressure 
through valves 10 and 12 ready for another cycle of 
operation. The duplex construction makes it possible 
for the valve-gear to be extremely simple. The air- 
valves are simple poppet-valves, which seat by gravity 
while the pistons wait, and therefore are not liable to 
pound themselves to pieces. All parts of the pump 
are durable and easily accessible. Steam and air valves 
may be examined by unscrewing plugs without taking 
down the pump. 


PUMP-GOVERNOR. 

Fig. 149 shows the construction of the pump-gov¬ 
ernor. Its purpose is to automatically shut off the 
supply of steam to the pump when the air-pressure in 
the train-pipe and auxiliary reservoirs has reached the 
desired limit. The brake-gear used on cars and engines 
is designed for a maximum air-pressure of 70 pounds 
in train-pipe. This limit should not be exceeded. 

Referring to the illustration, the steam-valve 5 is 


296 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

opened by steam-pressure, but is closed by air-pressure 
on top of piston 4 when the train-pipe pressure has 







l-v^wawyw' 






nzzi 


TRAIN PIPE 








■ ■ * i 


YfypTVfyfy 




Fig. 149. 

reached the limit for which the governor is adjusted. 
The action of the train-pipe pressure is controlled by 




















































































































BRA ICES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC. 


$9 7 


diaphragm 13 and spring 10. When the train-pipe 
pressure underneath the diaphragm overcomes the ten¬ 
sion of spring 10, the diaphragm will rise and allow 
valve 14 to open the train-pipe pressure to the top of 
piston 4. When the train-pipe pressure becomes less 
than the desired limit the spring 10 will close the valve 
14. The air above piston 4 will then leak by the piston 
and allow the steam-pressure to open the steam-valve 
5. An opening is provided in the chamber under 
piston 4, for any leakage of steam or air. Any neces¬ 
sary adjustment of the regulating spring 10 may be 
made by means of screw 8 and lock-nut 9. In order 
that steam may keep the exhaust from freezing, a small 
hole above the steam-valve is always open. 

Instructions .—Place the pump-governor in the steam- 
supply pipe leading to the pump, so that steam will 
flow through it in the direction indicated by the arrow. 
The end of the governor which goes toward the pump 
is made to fit the union connection furnished with the 
pump, and as a rule it is best to attach the governor 
here. Do not use rubber gaskets in making connec¬ 
tions. Connect the quarter-inch union in the upper 
part of the governor with the train-pipe. After piping 
up, but before connecting in the governor, blow out 
both steam and air-pipes, to expel any dirt or scale 
which may be in the pipes. Two leakage or drip 
holes, tapped to take J-inch pipe, are provided in the 
body of the governor. One of these holes must 
always be left open, but the other one may be plugged. 


298 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


ENGINEER’S VALVE. 

Fig. 150 shows the Engineer’s Valve. The different 
positions of handle are “ release,” “ running position,” 
“ lap,” “ service,” and “ emergency,” corresponding to 
the effect produced with the handle standing in those 
positions. 

The following description will make its operation 
plain: The chamber above piston 32 is connected with 
the train-pipe; the chamber below the piston is con¬ 
nected with the main reservoir. Exhaust-valve 42 
regulates the discharge of air from the train-pipe. It 
is opened by handle 50, but closed automatically by 
piston 32. Lever 67, which is fulcrumed on eccentric- 
pin 44, is for opening valve 42. Lever 65, which is 
fulcrumed on pin 47, and connected to eccentric-pin 44 
by link 66, is for opening main feed-valve 64 and small 
feed-valve 70. To apply the brakes, the handle (which 
is attached to the spindle that carries the eccentric-pin 
44) is moved beyond the second notch (lap). This 
raises the outside end of the lever 67, and with it valve 
42, thus allowing air to escape from the train-pipe, as 
the pressure tends to raise the inside end of lever 67 
and allow valve 42 to close and stop the escape of air 
from the train-pipe. If the eccentric-pin is raised but 
a little, the piston will have to rise but little to close 
the valve. If it is raised higher, the piston will need 
to rise higher to close the valve, and consequently will 
allow more air to escape from the train-pipe before the 
valve closes. This piston is made automatic in its 
action by means of the bell-crank 34 and spring 33. 


Fig. 150 


BRAKES , AIR-PUMPS , VALVES, ETC. 299 



BACK VIEW SHOWING PORTS. 

































joo LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

The pressure of the spring holds the piston down as 
long as the pressure on both sides of the piston is the 
same, but with a very short leverage on the bell-crank. 
The piston is connected to the bell-crank with a much 
longer leverage so that a very slight difference in press¬ 
ure on the piston will allow it to start upward, but as it 
ascends the piston leverage decreases and the spring 
leverage increases until an equilibrium occurs and the 
piston stops. A further reduction on the upper side 
of the piston will cause the piston to travel still farther 
upward. It follows that the reduction of pressure in 
the train-pipe caused by opening the valve 42 will 
depend on the height the eccentric-pin 44 is raised by 
the handle, as the piston must rise a corresponding dis¬ 
tance to close the valve, and the distance of piston 
travel depends on the difference in pressure on its 
opposite sides. 

To release the brakes the handle is moved forward 
the full length of its stroke. This causes eccentric-pin 
44 to descend, allowing the outer end of lever 67 to clear 
the lifting-pin in valve 42, so that it will be held to its 
seat by the train-pipe pressure above it. As lever 65 is 
connected with eccentric-pin 44 by link 66, this move¬ 
ment also causes it ro rotate and lift main feed-valve 64, 
admitting full reservoir-pressure to the train-pipe; the 
chamber above feed-valve 64 being in direct communi¬ 
cation with the main reservoir. When the handle is 
brought to running position or first notch from full 
release, main feed-valve 64 is closed, while small feed- 
valve 70 remains open, and air from main reservoir can 
get to train-pipe only by passing through excess-press¬ 
ure valve 68, by compressing spring 69, and thence 


BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS , VALVES, ETC. 


301 


through small feed-valve 70 to train-pipe. In the run¬ 
ning position the pressure in train-pipe is kept from 20 
to 25 lbs. lower than main-reservoir pressure. 

When handle is brought to lap position or second 
notch from full release, main feed-valve 64 is closed, 
together with small feed-valve 70, and in this position 
no air can get from main reservoir to train-pipe ; or, in 
other words, the train-pipe is blanked from main reser¬ 
voir. 


PLAIN TRIPLE-VALVE. 

Fig. 151 shows a section of plain triple-valve which 
is used only on engines and tenders. The parts are 
few, simple, and durable, and their operation is not 
easily affected by dirt. Connections are made with the 
auxiliary reservoir, the brake-cylinder, and the train- 
pipe, as shown. Slide-valve 38 controls the exhaust of 
air from brake-cylinder to release brakes, and graduat- 
ing-valve 48 controls the admission of air from auxiliary 
reservoir to the brake-cylinder for applying brakes. 
Piston 40 actuates slide-valve 38 and graduating-valve 
48, and in such a manner that valve 38 will close 
exhaust-port before graduating-valve 48 is opened. 
The slide-valve 38 can remain stationary while the 
piston 40 returns part way and closes graduating-valve 
48, as the abutments that move valve 38 are farther 
apart than the length of the valve. 

The operation is as follows: Air from the train-pipe 
passes to cylinder A , and thence through passage B and 
C to chamber D, and then through passage E to the 
auxiliary reservoir. When the train-pipe pressure is 


302 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


reduced the piston 40 moves its full stroke, first shut¬ 
ting off the auxiliary reservoir from the train-pipe by 



Fig. 151. 

closing the connection between passage B and cylinder 
A, next closing exhaust-valve 38 and opening graduat- 


















































BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC. 303 

ing valve, 48 which will admit air into the brake-cylinder 
the amount admitted being in proportion to the reduc¬ 
tion of the train-pipe pressure. If the train-pipe press¬ 
ure is reduced but little, the pressure in the reservoir is 
soon reduced to less than that in the train-pipe, and the 
piston 40 starts back and closes graduating-valve 48 
without disturbing slide-valve 38, which is held with 
some force by the air-pressure, aided by spring 9, and 
checks the return-stroke when valve 48 is closed. A 
further reduction of train-pipe pressure would repeat 
the same action and apply the brakes a little harder. 
If the train-pipe pressure is reduced 5 to 8 lbs. the 
brakes will be applied with but moderate force, but if 
the train-pipe pressure is reduced 20 lbs. the graduating- 
valve 48 will remain open and the brakes go full on, as 
the auxiliary-reservoir pressure will then continue to 
flow into the brake-cylinder until the pressure in each 
is equalized. An increase of pressure in the train-pipe 
will cause all the valves to move back to the position 
shown in the plate, thus releasing the brakes and allow¬ 
ing the reservoir to be recharged. 

Passage F allows moisture from the train-pipe to 
collect into chamber G, where it can be readily drained 
by unscrewing plug 13. 

Fig. 152 shows a section of the quick-action triple 
valve, the upper part of which is a duplicate of the 
plain triple-valve. For ordinary service stops the quick- 
action parts shown in the lower half of the cut remain 
inoperative, and the upper part operates in precisely the 
same way as the plain triple-valve, admitting auxiliary- 
reservoir pressure only to the brake-cylinder. The 
quick-action parts are for the purpose of giving a more 


304 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


powerful action of the brake than is necessary in ordi¬ 
nary service, and in emergencies, where such powerful 


train 

PIPE 



TO 

AUXILIARY 

RESERVOIR. 


TO 

BRAKE' 

CYLINDER. 


Fig. 152. 


action is needed, they admit additional pressure direct 
from the train-pipe through a comparatively large 
































































BRAKES, AIR-PUMPS, VALVES, ETC. 30 $ 

opening to the brake-cylinder, thus reinforcing the 
pressure derived from the auxiliary reservoir. The 
parts are few, simple, and durable, and have been im¬ 
proved so that the operation of the graduating and 
emergency features is unfailing on trains of any length 
and under any conditions of service. They have been 
thoroughly tested in the shops and in actual use on 
50-car freight trains, demonstrating their reliability 
under most unfavorable conditions. 

The emergency or quick-action portion consists of 
three moving parts; 1st, a valve 20,* controlling a pas¬ 
sage from the train-pipe to the brake-cylinder; 2d, a 
piston 13 for actuating valve 20 ; 3d, a check-valve 21 to 
prevent air in brake-cylinder from passing back into 
the train-pipe. Valve 20 is held on its seat partly by 
spring 16, but principally by train-pipe pressure on its 
under side. Piston 13 is open to reservoir pressure on 
its upper side, through passage H, and to train-pipe 
pressure on its lower side through passage K. In order 
to open valve 20 it is necessary to decrease the train- 
pipe pressure so much that the sum of the upward 
pressures on valve 20 and on piston 13 is less than the 
amount of reservoir pressure on the top of piston 
13. A quick reduction of 10 lbs. or more in the train- 
pipe pressure causes piston 13 to move down and force 
valve 20 from its seat, allowing the train-pipe pressure 
to lift and pass under check-valve 21, and through 
passage /directly into the brake-cylinder, thus quickly 
reducing the train-pipe pressure to actuate valves on 
succeeding cars, at the same time applying the brakes 

* To get the proper names of the different parts of the brake 
mechanism, look to the numbers given in the text and drawings. 





30 6 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

with greater force than would be possible if the brake- 
cylinder received air from the reservoir only. Check- 
valve 21 will close as soon as the brake-cylinder press¬ 
ure is as high as that in the train-pipe, and the brake- 
cylinder pressure will be increased from the auxiliary 
reservoir through valve 48. 

To release the brake the train-pipe pressure is re¬ 
stored. This raises piston 13 and allows the spring to 
seat valve 20 before piston 40 has sufficient force to 
overcome the resistance of slide-valve 38 and cause it 
to return to the position shown and thus release the 
brake. 

Moisture from the train-pipe collects in the bottom 
of the valve, where it can be easily drained by unscrew¬ 
ing the plug. 


WORK REPORTS. 

Locomotive engineers and firemen should try to 
become familiar with each part of the locomotive 
mechanism, as the parts are constantly increasing, due 
to improvements; and the question is often asked, 
What shall I call this or that part which is broken, 
when a work report is to be made out. It is much 
better for those in charge of the repairs to know 
from the report of the engineer just what part is broken, 
instead of having to guess, or get the inspector to look 
for it; and in a measure the work report will show the 
engineer’s knowledge of the machine he controls. 
The work reports given on the next page are not 
fictitious but those respectively of an engineer who is 
progressive and of one who is not so inclined- 


WORK REPORTS. 


30; 


I. 


Sy. Div., Jan. 15, 1893. 10.20 A.M. 


(Engine Track.) 

Buddly sock lost off the Jumbo. 

Have flues corked. 

Piston-packing wants to be fixed. 

Air-pipe is busted somewhere under foot-board ; have the inspector 
look for it. 


Safety valve 


lifts at 165 lbs. 
seats “ “ “ 


John Amos, Engineman. 


II. 

Sy. Div., Jan. 15, 1893. 10.20 a.m. 

(Engine Track.) 

. Cinder hopper-cap lost. 

Have flues caulked; leaking in bottom row. (Fire-box end.) 

Piston-rod packing-rings broken on right side. 

Air-pipe leading from main brake-pipe to auxiliary reservoir on the 
engine burst near the triple valve. 

j lifts at 165 lbs. 

Safety-valve j seats „ l6o 

Thos. Ai.len, Engineman. 

Report I is made out by a man who doesn’t care to 
read any books about his business or keep posted on 
improvements. All that he desires is that pay-day 
shall come once a month. 

Report II is made out by a progressive man, who 
believes that he can advance himself by reading and 
keeping abreast of the improvements in his business. 



Fig. 153.—The 96 -ton Electric Locomotive 

Weight on 8 dtiving-wheels, 192,000 lbs. Draw-bar pull, 42,000 lbs. Starting draw-bar pull, 60,000 lbs 

Diameter of drivers, 62". Height to top ol cab, 14' 3". Length over all, 35'. 




































APPENDIX. 


THE MODERN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 




APPENDIX. 


GENERATING CURRENT FOR THE ELECTRIC 

LOCOMOTIVE. 

As there are several ways of generating an electric 
current, it was thought proper to give a brief explana¬ 
tion of the manner of generating current for the electric 
locomotive. The current generated for this purpose is 
produced by machines called in railroad work genera¬ 
tors or dynamos, which are of large size and capacity, 
directly coupled to a slow-speed engine. Fig. 154 
shows a vertical compound engine driving a 1500 k.w. 
generator. The principle of a generator is this : As 
shown, a circular yoke has projecting inwardly several 
poles or fields thus multipolar ; these poles are wound 
with wire. In the centre of these fields is an arma¬ 
ture which is caused to revolve by the engine. On this 
armature is wound a lot of copper wire or bars insulated. 
The ends of the wire are connected to the commutator 
in the proper manner. Bearing against the commuta¬ 
tor are brushes for taking off the current. There are 
as many brushes as circuits through the armature when 
so desired. Now, if the engine is started, the arma¬ 
ture revolves, generating a current, due to the fact that 
the wires on the armature are within a magnetic field 

311 



312 LOCOMOT1VE MElHANISM AND ENGINEERING 



Fig. 154.—General Electric Co.’s Direct Connected Rail¬ 
road Generator (Multipolar Type) Driven by a Vertical Com¬ 
pound Condensing Engine. 






ELEC TRIG L O COMO TIVES. 


313 


and are cutting lines of force or magnetic flux, which 
are generated in the poles by a part or whole of cur¬ 
rent passing through the field winding from the arma¬ 
ture. The original lines of force bury the residual 
magnetism in the poles. Thus the current generated 
is proportional to the voltage and resistance, and the 
voltage or pressure of the current to the speed, number 
of inductors or wire on the armature, and number of 
lines of force cut by these wires on the armature. The 
current thus generated is passed to a switch-board, 
and from there to the proper feeder-wires over the 
line to the electric locomotive. For further information 
regarding generators the reader is referred to books on 
that subject. 


ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 

As the electric locomotive has developed into prac¬ 
tical use, and has been tested under heavy loads and 
high speed, it is thought that a clear and simple ex¬ 
planation would be a benefit to those handling our 
steam locomotives. 

The first subject will be to show the principle of an 
electro-magnet, or a magnet produced by a current of 
electricity. Get a piece of soft iron, round or square, 
preferably round, as in Fig. 155, and wind a coil of in¬ 
sulated copper wire around it in the manner shown ; 
then connect the two ends to the poles of a primary 
battery. A current of electricity will flow through 
this coil of wire surrounding the soft-iron core. What 
is the effect ? Let us see. Before there was any cur- 


314 LOCOMOTIVE ME CHA NISM A ND ENG I NEE RING . 


LEFT HAND NORTH POLE 


RIGHT HAND SOUTH POLE 



IRON CORE 


Fig. 155. 


-Electro-magnet Current Passing from Right to 

Left. 


DIRECTION 0F LINE8 OF'FORCE 


LINES OF FORCE 
PR MAGNETIC FLUX 



BATTERY 


Fig. 156.—Complete Electro-magnet Energized. 
















































































































































































































ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 3 I 5 

rent passing through the wire, if we should hold a nail 
or iron filing to the end of the soft-iron core, we would 
see no effect whatever. But since the current is flow¬ 
ing we find that our nail would be drawn or attracted 
to the iron core. In Fig 156 it shows the core com¬ 
pletely covered with wire. It is seen that the current 
flowing around the iron core causes lines of force to 
pass through the iron. These lines of force or magnet¬ 
ism cause the nail to be drawn to the iron. Fig. 161 
shows the lines of force as they pass through the iron 
from one pole to the other. The best* way to see 
the lines of force actually is to get a small horseshoe 
magnet and a piece of glass, distribute some iron filings 
over the glass, put the magnet directly under them, 
and they will arrange themselves in the direction of 
the lines of force. 

It will be found that there is a difference in the 
polarity of the two ends of the soft-iron core. One is 
a north pole, while the other is a south pole. (See Fig. 
156.) There are two conditions which govern this: the 
direction in which the wire is wound around the iron 
core, and the direction in which the current is passed 
through the coil of wire surrounding the core. In Fig. 
155 the wire is wound in a right hand-spiral, or in the 
direction of a right-hand screw. In Fig. 155 we see that 
the current is entering the coil at the right-hand end, 
and is passing over the iron core, or as in the direc¬ 
tion in which the man is swimming. It is a good plan 
to bear in mind that if the man is swimming with the 
current in the direction as shown in Fig. 155 the 
south pole of the magnet will be on his right hand 


3 16 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


and the north pole on his left hand.* To change the 
polarity by passing the current in the opposite direc¬ 
tion, Fig. 157, we see that the man is turned around, 
and his right hand points to the south pole and his left 
to the north pole, or the polarity is the reverse of the 
first case (Fig. 155)- Now, if the wire is wound as a 



Fig. 157.— Result of Passing the Current through the Coil 

from Left to Right. 


left-hand spiral (Fig 158), and the current entered from 
the right-hand end, we see that the polarity is opposite 
to that of the right-handed spiral. Remember to pro¬ 
duce opposite poles the current must pass around the 
spools in reverse directions in a horseshoe magnet (Fig. 
159). The magnet just explained is a bar type, and the 
lines of force must pass from the north to the south 
pole through the air (Fig. 156), which forms a great 


* This will apply no matter in which direction the current is flow¬ 
ing. 

























































ELECTRJC LOCOMO TIVES. 


3 T 7 


resistance to them. The closer the poles are to each 
other the less the magnetic leakage, and the shorter 
the distance the lines have to pass from one pole to 
the other the less is the resistance to their flow. 



Fig. 158.—A Left-hand Spiral Current Entering from Right- 
hand Side. Polarity Opposite to that of Fig. 155. 

Then the most desirable form of magnet generally 
used is the hoseshoe magnet (Fig 159); the two poles 
are bent around near to each other, thus shortening the 
distance which lines of force have to travel. If two 
magnets whose poles are of the same polarity are held 
close together, they will repel each other, and the lines 
of force or magnetic flux will be diverted as shown in 
Fig. 160, and produce consequent poles, as NN, SS. 
This is made use of in motors and dynamos. 

But if the two magnets are brought close together 
with opposite poles, or N and S, the magnets will be 
drawn together or attracted, the attraction becoming 
stronger as the poles approach each other. The law 
is, similar poles repel, and dissimilar attract. As the 
action of an electric magnet and what causes it to 










3 18 LO COMO TJ VE ME CHA NISM A AD ENGINEERING 




Fig. 160. —Forming Consequent Poles. Magnets with Simi 
lar Poles Opposite Each Other. 










































































THE ELECTRIC MOTOR FIELDS. 


319 


be a magnet has been explained to the reader, the 
fundamental principle of an electric motor or locomo¬ 
tive will be understood. Fig. 161 shows the lines of 



Fig. i6r.—S howing Lines of Force as Taken from a Photograph. 
force as produced by iron filing on glass held under a 
horseshoe magnet. 

THE ELECTRIC MOTOR FIELDS. 

The electric motor is composed of two parts in sim¬ 
plest form, one stationary and the other revolvable. 
The stationary portion is called field magnets, and on 
them is wound the wire which carries the current to 
produce the necessary poles, taking the present form 
as shown in Fig. 162, which is of the horseshoe type.* 


* And sometimes called the under type. 










320 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


The fields are not in one piece, but are composed of the 
field-pieces, the yoke, which is bolted on to each field- 



piece, and at the bottom are the pole-pieces N and 5. 
The field-pieces should be of the softest iron and of 
ample size to cairy the magnetic flux. bhey are gen- 





































































THE ELECTRIC MOTOR FIELDS. 


321 


erally made of wrought iron and of soft steel, and in 
a great many motors the pole-pieces are laminated to 
prevent Foucault or eddy currents. These are cur¬ 
rents induced in the solid pole-pieces, and flow across 
the axis of the pole as shown in Fig. 163, and pro¬ 
duce heating. Laminating prevents this cross-flow, as 
shown. The field-winding is wound on spools, and 



Fig. 163. —One Pole Laminated, the Other Solid (Showing 
the Effect of Foucault Current). 


then the yoke is taken off and the spools are slipped 
on the field-pieces. There should be as few joints 
as possible in the fields, and they should be as short 
as the winding will permit, so as to produce as short 
a magnet circuit as possible. Iron-clad field-magnets 
are the best. The motor fields may be of many 
different forms. Figs. 164 and 165 show a multi¬ 
polar type of motor; in these there are four pole- 
pieces projecting inwardly from the yoke, which is cir¬ 
cular in form and in two halves bolted in the centre. 
Any number of poles could be used if desired. The 












































322 LO COMO 71V E MECHA NISM A ND ENGINEERING. 


magnetic paths are plainly shown by Figs. 162 and 164; 
also the manner of winding and the flow of the cur¬ 
rent. Each field-coil is wound in the reverse direction, 



Fig. 264. —Multipolar Field-magnet, Series-wound Motor. 


of field is that which produces consequent poles, as in 
Figs. 166 and 167. This is the same as a double horse¬ 
shoe magnet, the pole-pieces being in the centre, and 
the field so wound as to produce north and south poles 
together, this causing the lines of force to be diverted, 
as shown in Fig. 160, 


























































THE ELECTRIC MOTOR FIELDS . 


323 



Fig. 165.—Multipolar Motors, 4 Circuit. 4 Brushes. 



///✓ 


























































































































































































































































324 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 



Fig. 167. —Consequent-pole Motor. 

MOTOR FIELD-MAGNET WINDING. 

There are several ways in which the fields are 
wound, and accordingly different results are obtained 
from the motor. In most electric motors, used for 
street-railroad service the fields are series-wound. But 
on larger motors for electric locomotives some are com¬ 
pound-wound, that system being best adapted for the 
service. Fig. 162 shows the field-winding and connec¬ 
tion to the mains or feeder. The connections are very 
simple. The rheostat, field-coils, and armature are all 
in series; the course of the current is shown by the 
arrows. In this winding it will be seen there is only 
one continuous coil of wire that is wound on the spools 
to excite the fields. Series-wound motors are run on a 
constant potential or constant current circuit. When 
run or a constant potential circuit, the strength of the 
motor varies with the current, and does not tend to run 

























SHUNT- WINDING. 


3^5 


at a constant speed like a shunt-wound motor. The 
best work to which they are adapted is railway work, 
where there is no danger of the load suddenly being 
taken off, and where variable speed is desired, as rail¬ 
road motors are subject to these changes. They are 
also an advantage on circuits where the potential is sub¬ 
ject to sudden drops, as on the end of a long line. 

j 

SHUNT-WINDING. 

In shunt-wound motors the field-coils are not in series 
with the armature as in the series-wound motor. The 
field-winding is of very fine wire of high resistance, 
and it takes but a small amount of current to excite 
the field-magnets. Fig. 168 shows the manner of con¬ 
necting the field-coils. As is shown, one end of the 
coils is connected to the positive (-j-) brush of armature, 
and the other end to the negative ( —) brush. In this 
the whole current supplied to the motor does not flow 
through the field-winding—only a portion, as shown by 
the arrows ; thus the name of shunt-wound. The cur¬ 
rent in this case has two paths from the positive brush 
(-{-) to the negative ( —). Shunt-wound motors are 
not used to any great extent on railways. There are 
some features against them in this capacity; for in¬ 
stance, on the ends of long lines where the fall of po¬ 
tential or presure might be great the motor would 
be converted into a dynamo for an instant. 

From the fact that the counter-electro-motive force 
would be greater than the E. M. F. being supplied, 
also in using shunt-wound motors on street railways, if 
from any cause, such as dirt, stones, sticks, or anything 
that would raise the wheels clear of the rail, so as to 


3 26 LOCOMO T/VE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 



Fig. 168.—Shunt-wound Motor Fields and Connections to 

Armature. 







































SHUN 7 - WINDING 


32 ; 


break the circuit, would cause the motor to fail to 
start, due to the fact that the current would leave the 
shunt-winding, which is of high resistance, when the 



Fig. 169. —Two-pole Shunt-wound Motor. 

current returned it would rush through the armature¬ 
winding, which is of less resistance, and not build up 
the field-magnetism. This rush of current is detri¬ 
mental. On stationary motors shunt-wound it is pol¬ 
icy to raise one brush from the commutator, so as to 
cause the current to pass through the field-winding or 

















3^8 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

shunt. One good feature of a shunt-wound motor is 
that it is nearly self-regulating on constant potential 
circuit and run at constant speed whatever the load, 
and at lower E. M. F. the regulations are the same, 
only the speed is less. Fig. 169 shows a full view of a 
shunt-wound motor having square fields. The shunt 
to the field is clearly shown. 

COMPOUND-WOUND MOTORS. 

In this form of winding there are two sets of coils 
around the fields, as shown in Fig. 171 : a shunt-coil of 
fine wire of many turns, and the series coil, which is the 
wire leading the current from the main circuit to the 
armature. 

Now in this type all the current passes through the 
series winding, which is generally of a small number 
of turns, and at the same time that amount of cur¬ 
rent passing through the shunt also passes around the 
fields. But that current in series coil passes to the 
positive brush (-)-) of armature, while that of the shunt 
passes from the positive to the negative brush without 
passing through the armature. This method of wind¬ 
ing is a combination of series and shunt. This form 
of winding has this advantage over the simple shunt 
winding: if the circuit should be broken at any time, 
the fields would be magnetized on the circuit being 
again closed, because the current would pass through 
the series winding around the fields. Then the counter 
E. M. F. would have a tendency to force a part of the 
current through the shunt-coil, thus building up the 
fields and producing the proper counter E. M. F. 
speed and torque. 


ARM A TURKS* 


329 


ARMATURES. 

Next after the fields comes the armature ; it is this 
part of the motor which produces the motion and is 



Fig. 171. —Compound-wound Motor Fields and Connections 

to Armature. 

the movable portion of the motor. There are two 
styles which will be explained : first, the ring type ; 
second, the drum type. The easiest type to explain 
to the reader is the ring armature. The general con- 



























33 ° LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


struction is as follows (see Fig. 172): On a shaft is 
keyed a spider of non-magnetic material, as brass; on 



Fig. 172. —Armature-core, Ring Type. —Fig. 173. 


this spider is mounted the armature. This ring is not 
made of one solid piece, but of a great number of flat 
disks with the centres punched out; the iron used is to 
be of the softest. In assembling the disks to form the 
ring, between each disk is placed a sheet of paper or 
other insulating material, thus separating the disks. 
In order to hold these in one solid ring, bolts of 
brass pass longitudinally through the ring, and the 
nuts drawn up tight, generally having end-plates of 
brass as shown in Fig. 173. The idea of placing in¬ 
sulating material between each disk is to prevent 
Foucault currents in the armature-core or ring. These 
currents are shown in Fig. 163. In using a solid 
core these currents induced in the iron and generally 
parallel to the axis of core, produce heat, and reduce 
efficiency of the motor; by using the laminated core 
these defects are mostly prevented, because the insula¬ 
tion between each disk prevents the currents from 
flowing as described. The same method is used in the 



















































ARM A TURK- WINDING. 


331 


construction of a drum armature. The next thing to 
do is to thoroughly cover this iron armature with an 
insulating material, so as to prevent the winding coming 
in contact with the iron of the core. A good duck cloth 
is usually used and is wrapped around the ring when it 
is a plain ring. This cloth is well saturated with a good 
shellac varnish. Some cover first with thick paper 
shellacked, then put the cloth on. Others use cloth 
and adhesive rubber tape. After the shellac is dry the 
winding is next, it being ascertained that the core is 
thoroughly insulated. Where a jmotor is to do heavy 
work, the shaft should be of best steel and short as 
possible to prevent its springing, as this, if excessive, 
would allow the armature to strike the pole-faces and 
injure the insulation, causing a short circuit. 

ARMATURE-WINDING. 

There are two methods of winding an armature— 
ring winding and drum winding. The method shown 
in Fig. 174 is what is called closed-circuit winding, and 
is in the form of a right-hand spiral. The winding 
covers the entire ring in the actual armature and is 
generally called a Gramme ring. But in most forms 
the ring is toothed or slotted across its length and the 
wire is wound in the slots. This fulfils two purposes: 
one is that it mechanically strengthens the armature¬ 
winding by forming a bearing for the wire to resist the 
pull due to fixed poles;* another point is that it pro¬ 
duces what is called an iron clad armature, which in¬ 
creases the efficiency of the armature and reduces the 

* It is to be understood that a wire having an electric current pass¬ 
ing around it, and in front of a magnetic pole, is subject to a torque or 
pull. 



33 2 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


clearance between the pole-faces and the armature. 
Wires are iron-clad, due to their being imbedded in the 
grooves. The wire can be wound around the ring in 
one continuous coil if desired, and is done by some 
manufacturers, but is generally wound in separate coils. 
As shown by Fig. 174, at equal distances around the 



Fig. 174.—Ring Armature. Closed-circuit Winding, Two Cir¬ 
cuits AROUND THE RlNG FORMING CONSEQUENT POLES S AND N. 

ring are short leads of wire connected to the winding 
on the ring and to the commutator. 

This commutator is composed of bars of copper 
insulated from each other and from the shaft. As 
shown, there are two coils connected to one commuta- 












ARM A TURE- IVINDING. 


333 


tor-bar. When the armature is wound in coils, the 
end of one coil and the beginning of the other coil 
must be connected to one commutator-bar same as 
Fig. 174. This also forms a two-circuit winding. This 
is the most simple form of winding and the easiest to 
be understood. There are many different forms of 
ring winding in dynamo and motor construction. By 
looking at Fig. 174 the course of the current through 
the winding is shown by the arrows. The positive 

(1 

brush (-f-) is on the top of commutator and touching a 
bar. The current passes into the lead 1 or wire to the 
winding on the ring; here it divides, part passing 
around the ring to the right and part to the left. That 
portion which passes to the right passes under the ring; 
the portiorf to left passes over the ring. The divided 
current then emerges into lead 2 at the bottom of 
the ring and unites, passing into the negative brush 
and then to main back to dynamo. 

It was explained on a former page that when a 
current of electricity was passed around a piece of 
iron it formed an electro-magnet. The armature-ring 
being iron, what must be the result in Fig. 174? The 
result is that the ring is a consequent-pole magnet, 
and the pole at the top is a south pole, and that at the 
bottom a north pole. These poles are the result of two 
N. and two S. poles, because the current had two paths 
around the ring, forming on each half of the ring a 
north and a south pole. The result is that the poles 
repel each other, as shown in Figs. 160 and 174, which 
show the lines of force passing from pole to pole. It 
is now that the reader should remember that poles of 
dissimilar kind attract, like poles repel; also that the 
armature-ring is now a magnet having two poles. 


334 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


OPERATION. 

The construction of the motor fields and armature 
has been fully explained. The next step is to assemble 
the parts into the complete motor. Fig. 175 shows a 



Rotation from right to left The south pole in armature being 
drawn to the north pole of field, north pole of ring to south pole of 
field. The poles at right angles to each other, brushes bearing on 
separate commutator-bars and at opposite diameters. The poles be¬ 
ing formed in the ring at the point where the leads from commutator- 
bars connect to the two coils. 

diagrammic view; the arrows show the course of the 
current through the armature and fields, this being a 
series motor field and armature in series. The current 
from the main or feeder passes into the positive brush (-j-) 




































































































OPERA TION. 


335 


and then into the ring winding, dividing, passing around 
both sides of the ring and out to the negative brush (—V 
As was explained on page 333, this forms two poles 
in the iron core of the ring, N. and S. poles. After 
the current leaves the armature-winding it passes to 
the field-coil on the left, forming a north pole as shown, 
then passes around to the field-coil on the right, form¬ 
ing a south pole; from there it passes to the ground or 
rail in most street-car motors or locomotives. This 
puts the field-winding on the ground side, but in most 
stationary motors the current passes through the field- 
coils first (see Fig. 162) and then to the armature ; this 
also applies to motors on cars, as in this case the field- 
coils will form a resistance to the flow of current. 
When the lightning strikes the line from overhead, in 
the other the fields form a resistance between the earth 
and the armature. There are two sets of magnets: 
one set in the ring of armature, the other the field- 
poles on each side of the ring. These poles are at 
right angles to each other in Fig. 175 ; rotation of the 
armature will be from right to left. Why? Because 
the north pole of the field-magnet is attracting the 
south pole of the armature-ring, and the north pole of 
the ring is being drawn to the south pole of the field- 
magnet on the right. It is seen now why it is well to 
understand the electro-magnet. It may be thought 
that when the poles get opposite to each other they 
will become locked, but they never get together. This 
is due to the construction of the commutator. If there 
are thirty coils of wire on the armature-ring, there will 
be thirty commutator-bars in the commutator-ring, 
and these bars are insulated from each other; and as 


336 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

the beginning of one coil and the end of the other is 
connected to one bar, and the brush bears on one bar 
at a time, as in Fig. 176, a pole will be formed on the 



ring where the wire from the commutator connects to 
the winding, as A, Fig. 168. The pole will remain at 
this part of the ring as long as the brush remains on the 



Fig. 177. 

commutator-bar A the pole 5 on the ring will move 
with the ring through an arc of a circle due to the width 
of the commutator-bar, or from A to B, Fig. 177. Then 





















OPERA TION. 


337 


the brush will leave the bar and pass to the next one, 
forming the N. pole at right angles again, as Fig. 178, 



which, with Figs. 176 and 177, shows the cause of rota¬ 
tion of a motor armature and of shifting the poles in the 
armature-ring. As it appears, the poles jump backward 
after travelling ahead, but in no case can the poles of 
the fields and those of the ring get together, as has been 
explained. The action is the same for the negative 
brush (—). The width of the commutator-bar deter¬ 
mines the distance the poles formed in the ring will 
travel and how near they will approach the field-poles.* 
This action is continued as long as current is supplied 
to the motor, and this is why a motor armature revolves. 
This action is the same with a drum armature. In 
smaller motors as applied to street-cars and some loco¬ 
motives the armature is not connected directly on to 
the axle to be driven, but they have a small pinion on 
the armature-axle ; this meshes with a large gear-wheel 

* It is to be understood that the attraction between the poles in the 
ring and the field-poles causes the ring to rotate. 














33 S LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

on the car-axle. This is called a single-reduction motor. 
By this it will be seen that the armature has a much 
higher speed of rotation than the axle being driven ; 
therefore a higher counter electro-motive force can be 
generated than would be if directly connected to the 
axle, although they are direct-connected motors or 
gearless. The larger electric locomotive use this type 
generally. 

COUNTER-ELECTRO-MOTIVE FORCE. 

It is well to understand the meaning and action of 
counter E. M. F. This force is generated in the ar¬ 
mature of a motor by the armature rotating and the 
winding on the core cutting the lines of force of the 
fields through which they are passing, or, in other 
words, the motor is acting as a dynamo; and it would 
be well to state here that a dynamo and motor are one 
and the same, that is, the dynamo will act as a motor 
if current is applied to it, and the motor will generate 
current if driven. 

The construction of the motor and dynamo is nearly 
the same, the only difference being in details and 
conditions of winding. Railroad generators are much 
larger in dime nsions, and usually compound wound, 
while the motor can be made as large as the generator 
if so desired. This counter-electro-motive force thus 
generated in the motor armature has the effect of 
opposing the flow of the current that is being delivered 
to the motor to operate it. At first thought this might 
seem to be a detriment, but it is in reality a benefit. 
Fig. 179 shows the action of C. E. M. F. The one 
is a motor and the other a dynamo ; the arrows show 


Fig. 179 —Illustrating Counter-electro-motive Force. 


CO UNTER-ELECTRO-MG 77 VE FORCE. 


339 



J 































































































































































34 ° LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


the course of the currents between the two. To show 
how the C. E. M. F. is beneficial: If there was no 
C. E. M. F. produced in the armature in order to 
supply current to a motor for a given power or speed, 
a resistance would have to be used in the circuit to 
prevent the rush of current through the motor. This is 
a very bad feature, as by using the resistance there 
would be a large loss of current and energy, because 
the current thus checked in its flow is wasted in heat, 
as can be easily seen in a resistance-coil. Then, again, 
a motor operating under a maximum current is not 
the most efficient, as there are losses due to resistance 
in the motor. Then it is seen that this counter E. M.F. 
produced by the motor itself is of a practical value in 
governing the amount of current supplied to the arma¬ 
ture. The C. E. M. F. of a motor is proportional to 
the speed of the armature (number of conductors) or 
windings and the strength of the field-magnetism. The 
table shows the effect of C. E. M. F. of a motor at 
different speeds by an experiment at a technical college. 
The current supplied at no speed was 20 amperes; 
following shows the decrease: 


Rev. per Min. Currentin Amperes. 


0. 

50. 


IOO . 



Rev. per Min. Current in Amperes. 

160. 7.8 

186 .. 6.1 

195. 5.1 


If the speed of a motor was so great that the counter 
E. M. F. generated by it was equal to the applied 
E. M. F., no current would flow to the motor; to do 
this the motor would have to have some other force to 
drive it along, as in the last case of 195 revolutions it 
took 5.1 amperes to run the motor against friction. 









REVERSING A MOTOR. 


341 


The idea of explaining this C. E. M. F. clearly is for 
future use, as in motor regulation. In Fig. 179 
C. E. M. F. is clearly shown by the dynamo and motor, 
which are connected by the proper circuits; they are 
both rotating right-handed. As an example it is sup¬ 
posed that the dynamo or generator is supplying cur¬ 
rent at 500 volts pressure to the motor, and the motor 
is producing a counter E. M. F. of 450 volts at the 
brush; then the C. E. M. F. is opposing the applied 
E. M.F., as is shown by the arrows in the drawing, and 
the useful voltage would be 50 volts. 

In the dynamo-armature arrows I and 2 represent 
the E. M. F., and arrows 3 and 4 represent the current; 
and it is seen that they flow in the same direction. 
Now in the motor the arrows 1 and 2 represent the 
C. E. M. F. of the motor-armature, and arrows 3 and 4 
represent the current applied from the dynamo. 

REVERSING A MOTOR. 

An electric motor is capable of being reversed in its 
rotation, which is a valuable feature, and the law of 
changing the flow of current to change the polarity 
adapts itself to the conditions required to cause a 
motor to rotate in different directions. There are two 
ways in which a motor may be reversed : first, by 
changing the direction of the current through the 
armature ; second, by changing the direction of the 
current through the fields. But if the current is reversed 
in both field and armature at the same time the motor 
will continue to rotate in the same direction in which it 
was running before the current was reversed ; so then it 
is seen that the fixed law is, the current must be re- 


34 2 LO COMO TIVE ME CHA NISM A ND ENG I NEE RING 

versed in only one of the parts to cause a reversal of 
motor. Fig. 180 shows the action very clearly ; the 
motor rotating from right to left, north pole of the 
field on the left side and south pole on the right ; in 
the armature the S. pole is at the top of ring and the N. 



pole at the bottom. The S. pole of armature is beine 
drawn to the N. pole of field. The current is enter¬ 
ing the positive brush (-f-) of armature on top of com¬ 
mutator, and the current is flowing downward on both 
sides of the ring and passing into negative brush in 




















































REVERSING A MOTOR. 


343 


bottom of commutator-ling. Fig. 181 shows the arma¬ 
ture rotating from left to right. The poles of the field 
remain the same as in Fig. 180, but the polarity in the 
armature-ring is changed. The N. pole is at the top of 
ring and the S. pole is at the bottom. 


ROTATION 
♦-- 



Fig. 181. 


What is the cause of this ? The direction of current 
through the armature is changed ; instead of it entering 
the brush on top of commutator and entering the ring 
at the top, the current is entering the brush at the 
bottom of commutator-ring and is entering the arma¬ 
ture-winding at the bottom, and is flowing upward to¬ 
ward the top of armature-ring and passes into the neg¬ 
ative brush, thus forming poles of opposite sign to that 
of Fie. 180. Now it is seen that the motor must rotate 
from left to right, as the N. pole in armature will be 































344 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


drawn to the S. pole of the field on the right, and from 
S. pole on armature to the N. pole of field on the left. 

It is to be understood that all the leads to the com¬ 
mutator are not shown in Figs. 180 and 181, only those 
two in which the current is entering and leaving the 
ring ; also the law that poles of the same sign repel is 
illustrated here, as the N. poles will repel each other, 
also the S. poles. To change the direction of rotation 
by changing the polarity of the fields the current must 
be sent through the coils in an opposite direction to that 
in Fig. 180, but the direction through the armature 
must remain the same. Dotted letters show the polarity 
due to change in field (Fig. 180), and the dotted lines 
from negative brush show the circuit to the field when 
the current is sent in the reverse direction, and the 
dotted arrows show the flow of current around the 
fields. Now it will be seen that the armature must re- 

9 

volve from left to right. 

RESISTANCE-COIL OR RHEOSTAT. 

The object of a rheostat is to control or regulate the 
amount of current that is to flow to a motor if used in 
connection with one, and is the same as a throttle- 
valve to a steam-engine. The amount of current that 
will flow in a circuit depends on the voltage and resist¬ 
ance in the circuit, so that if it is desired to take a 
small amount of current from a circuit having a large 
current and voltage a resistance must be used to 
check the flow of current and allow only that which is 
desired. It is for that purpose a rheostat is used. 
As an example, the main circuit has a voltage or press- 


RESISTANCE-COIL OR RHEOSTAT. 


345 


ure of 50 volts and the rheostat has a resistance of 10 
ohms. The amount of current that will flow from the 
main circuit through the rheostat will be 50 volts di¬ 
vided by the resistance, which equals 5 amperes of cur- 



Fig. 182. —Rheostat or Resistance-box. 

rent. Or if it is desired to find what resistance a rheostat 
must have for a motor on a circuit of 230 volts to 
allow a current of 20 amperes to flow through it: Ac¬ 
cording to Ohm’s law resistance equals electro-motive 





























34-6 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


force divided by current; then 230 20 = 11.5 ohms 

as the resistance of the rheostat. As has been stated 
before, the resistance is reduced as much as possible 
to prevent loss of current due to heat, so as the motor 
gets up to speed the resistance can be cut out. Why ? 
Because the counter-electro-motive force generated by 
the motor will help check back the current. In elec¬ 
tric locomotives resistance is used only in starting to 



prevent a great rush of current through the motors, 
and then is cut out as the motors increase in speed or 
are changed in their combination. 

A rheostat as usually made is a box full of coils of 
wire connected in series, as Fig. 182; the current en¬ 
ters the first coil on the left. In the centre of this 
box is a lever, which can be pushed over the brass pieces 
or contacts. Wires lead from each of the coils to each 
brass segment. These segments are insulated from 
































































































VOLTMETER. 


347 


each other, so the current must pass through the coils as 
shown. The lever is on the centre segment. The cur- 
rent passes from the centre coil into the lever to the 
motor circuit as shown. The different coils represent 
different resistances, so that any resistance within the 
limit of the rheostat can be had by moving the lever 
over the segments or contacts. The general form of 
resistance used in the electric locomotive is shown in 
Fig. 183, which is called a diverter or starting-rheostat. 
Resistance-coils are made of German silver, iron wire, 
and carbon, also sheet metal with insulation of mica and 
asbestos between the sheets. These sheets are con¬ 
nected in series, and suitable leads are connected to 
contacts. In the controller the use of the diverter can 
best be seen as in Fig. 195, 1 to 10. 

VOLTMETER. 

The voltmeter fulfils the same purpose on the elec¬ 
tric locomotive that the steam-gauge does on the steam 
locomotive—shows the pressure of the current. The 


FINDING THE DIFFERENCE IN POTENTIAL 

OR PRESSURE BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON MEASURING THE VOLTAGE BETWEEN 

A CIRCUIT AS A AND B THE TERMINAL OF A DYNAMO 



Fig. 184. 

voltmeter is attached across the main circuits, as shown 
in Fig. 184. Thus acts as a shunt to the mains. 












34 $ locomotive mechanism and engineering . 

The general construction is shown in Fig. I 77 > which 
is a Weston voltmeter. In the centre is a small cylin¬ 
der of iron. Surrounding the cylinder is a small coil 
of fine wire of high resistance mounted on a spindle; 
the pivots rotate in sapphire jewels. To counteract 
the movement of coil are tw'o spiral springs. Sur- 



Fig 185. —Details of Voltmeter, 


rounding this cylinder and coil are the poles of a per¬ 
manent magnet; on the pivot-shaft is a pointer or 
indicator same as a steam-gauge hand ; at the end of 
this pointer is a scale in volts and fractions of volts, 
although the meter used on a locomotive would be a 





























































































































































VOL TME TEE. 


349 


direct-reading, dead-beat instrument. What is meant 
by this is that direct reading there is no multiplying 

FINDING THE DIFFERENCE IN POTENTIAL 

OR PRESSURE BETWEEN TWO POINTS ON MEASURING THE VOLTAGE BETWEEN 

A CIRCUIT AS A AND B THE TERMLNAL OF A DYNAMO 

B -2 A I 



Fig. 186.—The Method of Attaching Voltmeter to Circuit. 
constant used, as the scale shows the volts pressure. 
Dead beat means that the pointer comes to a rest im- 



Fig. 187.—Weston Voltmeter. 

mediately without any swing. To find the difference 














35° LO COMO TIVE ME CHA N1SM A ND ENG I NEE RING. 


in potential or pressure between any two points on a 
circuit the two terminals of the voltmeter are attached 
to the two points on the wire to be measured (see A 
and B , Fig. 186). The operation depends on the press¬ 
ure or voltage in the circuit to force a small amount of 
current through the coil to the negative side of the 
circuit. By so doing the current in the coil and the 
poles of the permanent magnet cause rotation of cylin¬ 
der or deflection of pointer over the scale, thus re¬ 
cording the pressure in volts. Fig. 187 shows a full 
view of voltmeter and scale. 


AMMETERS. 

The use of the ammeter is to indicate the amount of 



Fig. 188. —Weston “ Rounc-pattern ” Ammeter, in Series with 

Circuit. 





A U TOMA TIC CIRCUIT-BREA HER. 


351 


current flowing through the circuit in amperes. In¬ 
stead of the terminals being connected across the cir¬ 
cuits as with the voltmeter the ammeter is in series 
with one side of the circuit or forms part of the circuit 
and thus takes the whole current through it, and is 
wound with a small number of heavy wires, depending 
or. the current it is to carry. Fig. 188 shows a Weston 
ammeter ; the construction is the same as the voltmeter 
except the wire on the cylinder. The reading depends 
on the amount of current flowing through the coil. 
There are many kinds of ammeters, but depending on 
the principle described. They are also made that only 
a part of the current shall flow through the meter; this 
is for exceedingly large currents. The ammeter is con¬ 
nected in parallel with the main circuit, the scale being 
calibrated. 


AUTOMATIC CIRCUIT-BREAKER. 

The automatic circuit-breaker acts the same as the 
safety-valve to a steam-boiler and protects the motor 
or generator, in case of a ground or overload. The 
current-breaker will be found on all electric locomo¬ 
tives. There are several types used, but the action 
depends on one principle, that is, a magnet so wound 
that when a certain number of amperes flow through 
the magnet-winding it will attract an armature which 
forms a trigger or lock; this causes the release of a 
spring which opens the switch, thus breaking the cir¬ 
cuit. The number of amperes that will flow through 
the circuit can be readily adjusted to any desired 
amount. The point in all designs is to prevent spark- 


3 5 2 LOOomotive mechanism a nd engineering 



Closed. 


Fig 



189.—Direct-current Automatic Magnetic Circuit-break¬ 
ers. 500 Volts. 

























































































AUTOMATIC CIRCUIT-BREAKER . 


353 


ing or arching at the switch-points, which is destruc¬ 
tive and breaks the switch down. One way is to pro¬ 
vide a magnetic blowout, which blows the arc out and 
thus prevents breaking down of switch. Another is to 
make the final break on high-resistance carbon points 



A , magnet; BB , carbon points; C, switch; D, spring; E, trigger; 
E, switch-points; G, magnet-wire (main circuit). 


In the breaker shown in Fig. 189 a fuse is used in shunt 
with the circuit, and after the switch is at the point of 
opening the fuse will take part of the current, thus pro¬ 
vide a by-path and prevent the arcing at switch. When, 






































354 LO COMO I 7 VE ME CHA NISM A ND ENGINEERING. 


the fuse takes the full load, it is blown, and the circuit 
is broken Complete. 

Fig. 190 shows the general principle of construction 
of an automatic breaker more plainly than Fig. 189. 
In Fig. 189 the breaker is shown in two positions, 
open and closed. 

FUSE. 


The object of having a fuse is to provide against heavy 
currents or overloads. A fuse can be made of an alloy 
of tin and lead ; a copper wire may be used. The idea 
is that the fuse, being of certain size and having certain 
fusing-points, will carry a certain amount o' current in 
amperes, and if from any cause there should be an 
extra amount of flow over what the capacity of the fuse 



is the fuse will melt, thus opening the circuit, and save 
the motor from being burned out. Fig. 191 shows fuse- 
block. This is made of iron, slate, and asbestos and is 
of a novel design. The fuse is a simple copper wire. 















































































































































LIGHTNING-A RRES TERS . 


355 


It is placed upon the slate back of an iron box, which 
is entirely closed with the exception of a hole in the 
slate before which the fuse-wire passes. The rush of 
the heated air through this hole when the fuse is 
blown effectually blows out the arc. A pocket at the 
bottom of the box inside the door is provided for 
carrying extra fuses. This fuse is placed in the circuit 
between motors and trolley-wire when used on street¬ 
car motors and electric locomotives which take their 
current from a trolley-wire. 

LIGHTNING-ARRESTERS. 

The purpose of a lightning-arrester is to act as a 
safeguard to the insulation of the motors from the 
lightning discharge. Lightning, in striking the line, 
will find the shortest path possible to earth. Then 
the motors of a locomotive, being in parallel with the 
line and the earth, afford a path for the lightning dis¬ 
charge. Lightning, being of high electro-motive force 
and small current, can leap across a gap where the cur¬ 
rent from the generator would not. This fact is 
taken advantage of in constructing arresters. If there 
are no arresters provided, the lightning will enter the 
winding of the motor fields when they are on the 
trolley side, and the field-windings, being of many 
turns of wire, form a high resistance to the flow of the 
lightning discharge, and form a high self-induction, 
which also has the effect to choke back or retard the 
passage of the discharge. The discharge, as has been 
stated, having a high E. M. F., seeks the shortest path 
to ground by disrupting or breaking down the insula- 


356 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


tion of the field-winding and finding its way to earth 
through the field-cores or the iron of the motor and 
wheels of the locomotive. This provides a path for 
the current from the generator to the ground and thus 
short-circuits the motor, and where an arc is formed, 
if in the winding, will burn the insulation. There are 
many different forms of arresters, all depending on the 
principle that the discharge will leap a gap between 
two points rather than pass through a more tortuous 
path through the motor (Fig. 192). The one point de- 



Fig. 192.—Lightning-arrester, Common Style. 

sired in a good arrester is that it will act promptly and 
disrupt the arc formed across the air-gap so as to stop 
the flow of the current from the circuit which will 
follow the lightning discharge. 

There are different ways of doing this,—magnetic 




































357 


CHANGE OF SPEED. 


blowout; magnetic attraction ot an armature, which 
forms one end of the circuit to earth,—but the most 
common is two brass plates having teeth similar to 
saw-teeth, one connected to the line and the other con¬ 
nected to the earth circuit, the two plates set with 
teeth separated y 1 ^- of an inch from each other. Fig. 
184 shows the action of the lightning leaping across 
the gap and passing to earth. In the magnetic blow¬ 
out the advantage is taken of the fact that if an arc is 
placed between two poles of a magnet the arc will 
be deflected to one side, and if strong enough will dis¬ 
rupt or blow the arc out. So it is with this style of 
arrester: the discharge takes place between the two 
poles of an electro-magnet which is energized by the 
flow of current, which blows the arc out and breaks 
the circuit to ground. (See Fig. 193.) 



CHANGE OF SPEED. 

The method mostly used to change the speed of 
motors is to change the strength of the fields, and in 
practice motors are wound with a large amount of 
winding on the fields, so that a maximum strength of 
field is attained with a small current as compared with 




























35S LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


the maximum current. This is equivalent to saying 
that the magnetism given by a small current is yet suf¬ 
ficient to saturate, or nearly saturate, the iron of the 
magnets. If the fields be kept below the point of satura¬ 
tion and be varied in strength, the speed can be varied 
to a certain degree ; if a car is moving on a level, to 
produce a counter E. M. F. of 400 volts and the 
applied E. M. F. is 500, and the resistance of arma¬ 
ture circuit is 10 ohms, the current flowing should 
500 volts — 400 volts 

=-——7-= 10 amperes of current. 

10 olims 1 

Then the mechanical work done would be 400 volts X 
10 amperes = 4000 watts. Now if it is desired to run 
slower and the field strength is increased 10 per cent, the 
counter E. M. F. at the same speed would be 440 volts ; 


, 5 00 volts — 440 volts 

the current =--= 6 amepres of 

10 ohms v 

current. Then 6 amperes X 440 volts = 2640 watts. 
Now the motors required 4000 watts to maintain the 
former speed ; it is evident that the motors will run at 
a slower speed under the new condition, due to greater 
field strength. 

The second important method of regulating speed 
under varying loads is found in the variation of the 
E. M. F. applied to the armature. From what has 
been said concerning the measure of work done it will 
be readily seen that, other things being equal, decrease 
of applied E. M. F. must be followed by decrease of 
output, and increase of E. M. F. by increase of output. 
Let us again consider the case of a motor develop¬ 
ing 400 volts counter E. M. F., the applied E. M. F. 
being 500 volts, the current being 10 amperes, and 




359 


CHANGE OF SPEED. 

the resistance to motion being uniform. If now we 
reduce the applied E. M. F. (E.) to 450 volts, and if 
we conceive that for a moment the counter E. M. F. 
(E'.) remains at 400, the current would be reduced to 

. , 450 volts — 400 volts 

5 amperes; thus, -- = 5 amperes. 

Such a change would reduce the output to one half 
its former value. The speed would then necessarily 
drop to one half unless this decrease of output be 
checked in some way. This check would come through 
the fact that a decrease in speed would be followed by 
a corresponding decrease of E' which would at once 
increase C ’. In case two or more motors be used on 
one car or train there remains a third method of pro¬ 
ducing a considerable range of control, namely, by 
changing the machines from the multiple to the series 
arrangement with respect to each other, and vice versa. 
The applied E. M. F. is just one half in the second 
case what it is in the first if there be two motors, one 
third if there be three, and so on. A variation of this 
method might be had by changing the field-winding, 
leaving the armatures permanently in series or perma¬ 
nently in multiple. The series arrangement of the two 
machines is of special value in starting a car and in 
maintaining low speeds. In both cases it may become 
the equivalent in effect and the superior in economy 
of either of the above, described methods of control. 
Through this method it is indeed possible to make the 
same motors fulfil widely different service conditions. 
Thus, suppose cars are to begin their trips in the most 
populous portions of a city where many stops and rela¬ 
tively slow running are unavoidable, while on reaching 



360 locomotive mechanism and engineering. 

the suburbs long runs at high speed are desired. We 
may then design motors which if placed in multiple 
and permitted to run at say 25 miles an hour will de¬ 
velop each 25 horse-power. If placed in series, they 
would each develop 12.5 horse-power at 12.5 miles per 
hour, and at both speeds their efficiency maybe high. 

To meet speeds lower than 12.5 miles per hour, the 
load such as would permit only that speed if the im¬ 
pressed E. M. F. be 250 volts (half of 500 for each), we 
may resort to either of the two methods of general 
control, the motors as a whole being kept in series. So 
for speeds between 12.5 and 25 miles per hour, the tor¬ 
sional effect required being still the same, we may in 
like manner control the two motors placed in multiple. 
In case of any heavy and long grade this latter arrange¬ 
ment would be used.* 

CONTROLLER AND SPEED-REGULATOR. 

The electric locomotive is as capable of control as a 
steam locomotive, and can be made to run under vari¬ 
ous speeds and loads. To regulate speed there is a 
controller on the locomotive usually of the series-par¬ 
allel type. In the older forms of controllers the 
rheostat was used to regulate the amount of current 
that would flow to the motors, on street-cars and the 
smaller types of locomotives having two motors. 
These motors were connected permanently in parallel, 
the current dividing, one branch passing through each 
motor, and then joined again in a single circuit, passing 
to the ground. The reduction of the line-pressure to 


* Crosby and Bell. 





CONTROLLER AND SPEED-REGULATOR. 361 


a point at which the motors would start was regulated 
by the rheostat placed in the circuit between the trol¬ 
ley and the motors. As the current divided, half flowing 
through each motor, the amount of current required 
would be double that required by one motor to move 
its share of the load. All this current had to flow 
through the rheostat. The pressure dropped in the 
rheostat is dead loss, and produces no work, but is 
wasted in heat. By multiplying the drop by the cur¬ 
rent flowing the total loss can be found. Of course 
when the motors get up to speed, the resistance is 
gradually cut out. An effort was made to overcome 
this loss, and the series-parallel controller was devised. 
In this the motors are first connected in series; the cir¬ 
cuit passes first through one motor and then the other 
without division. By this means, together with a very 
slight resistance, which is instantly cut out, the proper 
starting-pressure is applied without loss; and, the motors 
being in series, the same current that starts one motor 
flows through and is used over again in the second 
motor, thus taking one half as much current from the 
line as in the rheostatic method of control. After the 
car is started, current to each motor is increased by 
gradually throwing the motors in parallel with no re¬ 
sistance in circuit. It will be seen that the final or full 
speed connections are the same in both methods. Fig. 
194 is a full view of a series-parallel controller open, 
showing the contacts, revolving cylinder, and reverser. 
The figures marked from 1 to 10 in Fig. 195 show 
the various combinations that the controller will put 
the motors in to start and vary the speed and power 
of the locomotive or car. The controller shown in 


362 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING 



Fig. 194 



























































































































































































CONTROLLER AND SPEED-REGULATOR. 3 6 






Fig. 195 (1 to 4). —Series Parallel Controller Combinations. 



















































































































364 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 






Fig. 195 (5 to S) — Continued. 


































































































































CONTROLLER AND SPEED-REGULATOR. 


365 




Fig. 194 contains for two motors 13 wires going from 
controller to controller, as generally two controllers are 
used—8 motor- and 3 rheostat-wires, 1 trolley- and 1 
ground-wire. The wires are joined to their respective 
binding-posts in the cut-out box, except the rheostat- 
wires. There are also short wires goingfrom the bind- 
ing-post to motors and ground, also one wire to trolley- 
pole. This wire is led to the fuse-box, and passes 
through overhead switches and through a fuse-box, 













































































366 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

so that when the switches close the overhead wire is 
in direct contact with the controllers. The ground- 
wire is grounded on the motor which rests on the axle, 
current passing through the wheels to the ground. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 

Up to the present time motors have been shown 
separate from the locomotive proper. It will be 
proper now to bring the parts together, and then show 
the different electric locomotives in operation. The 
electric locomotive can be made in different shapes, 
and it has not yet assumed a standard outline, as the 
steam locomotive, except in certain cases. The street¬ 
car is in itself a locomotive. The description and 
illustrations will begin with the motors on a combina¬ 
tion car and follow up to the larger locomotive, and 
it will be found that there is very little difference in 
motor construction, regulation, and operation in either 
case. In the smaller locomotives the motor is gener¬ 
ally geared to the driving-axle by what is called single 
reduction, that is, a small pinion on the armature-shaft 
and a large gear-wheel on the driving-axle. By this 
method the armature can run much faster than the 
axle, and thus can produce the proper counter E. M. F. 
and speed. Motors used to be of double reduction. 
On the large electric locomotive the motor is directly 
connected without any gearing, which will be ex¬ 
plained in the description of same. The locomotive 
shown in Fig. 196 is of the combination type, and is a 
little smaller in dimensions than a standard passenger 
coach. Four Westinghouse motors, each motor being 


DIFFERENT KINDS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 3 67 


















































































































































































368 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

of 50 H.P. capacity, two on each truck, run the car. At 
either end of the car is a series-parallel controller 
and the usual equipment ; also an automatic circuit- 
breaker is provided in this style of locomotive. The 
man in charge of running the car is protected from 
the weather and has a very clear view of the track 
ahead of him. It will be seen by the cut that his posi¬ 
tion is on the platform of the car, and doors open at 



Fig. 197. —Westinghouse Steel Motor, 50 H. P., Four-poll. 
Two-ctrcuit, Drum Armature, Used on Burlington & Mt. 
Holly Motor Car. 


the sides to permit passengers to get on and off, al¬ 
though only at one end, so it does not interfere with 
the man running the car. One portion of the car 
is used for baggage, as shown. The Westinghouse air¬ 
brake is used to stop with. The air is compressed by a 
pump operated by a small electric motor and so repri- 
lated that when the required pressure is reached the 







































DIFFERENT KINDS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 369 

motor will be stopped, this being similar to an air- 
pump governor used to regulate the air-pressure on a 
steam locomotive. The method of attaching motors 
to the axles of a locomotive or motor car of this style 
is shown in Fig. 197. Another method of suspending 
motors is shown in Fig. 198, a full view. 



Fig. 198. —Spring-mounted Steel Railway Motor. (Front 

View.) 


The method used to accomplish this is shown in Fig. 
199, which is an end elevation of the motor with one 
wheel taken away. A is a U-shaped frame, the 
rounded end of the U being journalled on the car-axle 
in the ordinary way. Swinging freely between the 
arms of this U is the motor A , trunnioned by its 
bearing-cases. The motor is then supported at the 
rear by spiral springs C , between the lugs on the 
frame—which have a factor of safety in strength of 
twenty—and the arms of the U. This feature is also 
shown in Fig. 198. At the front end it is supported 












37 ° LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

by a swinging arm from the ordinary spring truck-bar 
D. It can be seen that, with this suspension, the 
motor rides freely on springs, readily adjusting itself 
to varying conditions without bringing a strain or 
check on any part. The gear-centres are always 
maintained because of the U-shaped frame. 



Fig. 199.— Method of Suspension. 















































ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE, FRANCE. 


371 


ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE, 
FRANCE. 

Figs. 200 and 201 show 
an electric locomotive 
that has taken the place 
of a steam locomotive in 
hauling coal and freight 
through tunnels, which 
the electric locomotive 
is particularly adapted 
to on account of the ab¬ 
sence of dirt and smoke. 
In this design it will 
be seen how readily a 
locomotive can be con¬ 
structed. This was in 
reality a flat car, which 
was loaded down with 
iron to get the required 
tractive adhesion. The 
motor was then mounted 
on the car. It is a series- 
wound motor. In order 
to drive the wheels a 
bronze pinion meshes 
with a large gear wheel 
which forms a combined 
gearand magnetic clutch. 
The centrt or hub is sur¬ 
rounded by a coil of wire 
for the purpose of mak¬ 
ing a magnet of it. 









































































































37 2 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


This large gear-wheel is mounted on a shaft carried on 
the frame of the car. Mounted on this axle is a sleeve 
carrying two sprocketwheels ; the end of this sleeve 
forms a disk which forms a cone ring on its face, which 
fit in corresponding grooves in the large gear-wheel hub. 
As a whole it forms a magnetic friction-clutch. Fastened 
to the axles of the locomotive are sprocket-wheels ; 
sprocket-chains run from the pinions of friction-clutch to 
these sprocket-wheels on the axles and drive the locomo¬ 
tive. The cut shows the controller, wiring-motor, mag¬ 
netic friction-clutch, and gear-wheels very plainly. The 
current is taken from an insulated rail placed in any 
position, illustrated by end view ; contact-shoes on the 
car slide on this insulated rail. The idea of the mag¬ 
netic clutch is to prevent any undue strain on the 
sprocket-chain, as the clutch is so calculated as to slip 
under abnormal tension. The speed, 3J- miles on 1.4 
per cent grade, and 6 miles on the level. The total 
weight is 15 tons. The description of this locomotive 
was communicated to the Socidte Internationale des 
Electriciens by M. Hillariet. 

THE B. & O. R. R. ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. (Fig. I 53.) 

The distance over which the electrical locomotive 
operates is about 15,000 feet, passing through two 
tunnels, 7339 feet and 265 feet long respectively, and 
over 7396 feet of track in the open from Hamburg 
street to Huntington avenue, Baltimore. Three tracks 
are laid into the southern portal, two tracks passing 
through the tunnel, four tracks from the northern por¬ 
tal, through the Mt. Royal avenue arch, and two 


THE E. & 0. R. R. ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 373 


tracks as far as Huntington avenue, where a siding is 
provided for the electrical locomotives. There is a 
steady grade of .8 per cent from the southern through 
to the northern portal, and the lines in the open have 
two equated curves of io degrees, with a steady gra¬ 
dient of i|- per cent. At the power-house end of the 
line the locomotives run on a siding at the beginning 
of the long open cut running down to the southern 
portal. 

The operation of the freight trains begins at the main 
tracks south of the Camden station, where they will be 
switched into the cut. The electric locomotive then 
couples on behind, without stopping the train, and 
pushes it through as far as the Mt. Royal avenue portal, 
a distance of 8146 feet, the steam locomotive doing no 
work. After passing out of the tunnel both steam and 
electric locomotives pull and push together up the 
heavier grade as far as Huntington avenue, the 
average speed over the entire distance being about 
fifteen miles an hour. At Huntington avenue the 
electric locomotive will uncouple and run into its 
siding. 

The plan of pushing the passenger trains through 
the tunnels has been abandoned, in view of the possible 
results if one of the cars or the steam locomotive should 
leave the track in front of the heavy electric locomo¬ 
tive travelling at thirty miles an hour. The passenger 
trains will, therefore, be pulled through from the Lom¬ 
bard street station near the south end of the tunnel to 
the Bolton street station at the north end. 

The 96-ton locomotive, built by the General Electric 
Co., has the following dimensions and capacity : 



374 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


Number of trucks. 

Number of motors. 

Weight on driving-wheels . 
Number of driving-wheels., 

Draw-bar pull . 

Starting draw-bar pull. 

Gauge. 

Diameter of drivers. 

Length over all. 

Height to top of cab. 

Wheel-base of each truck... 

Extreme width. 

Diameter of sleeve-bearings 


2 

4-2 to each truck 
192,000 lbs. (96 tons) 
8 

42,000 lbs. 

60,000 lbs. 

4 ft. 8| in. 

62 in. outside of tires 
35 ft. 

14 ft. 3 in. 

6 ft. 10 in. 

9 ft. 6£in. 

13 in. 


The driving-gear consists of a cast-steel spider, 
shrunk on and keyed to a cast-steel driving-sleeve, hav¬ 
ing a tensile strength of 80,000 lbs. 

The draw-heads are of the Janney type, similar to 
those used on the Baltimore &Ohio passenger locomo¬ 
tive tenders, and are made of cast steel with wrought- 
iron knuckles. In coupling with freight trains the 
ordinary link and pin will suffice ; but for passenger 
service the Janney couplers, with which each locomo¬ 
tive is provided, are used. The front and back of the 
locomotive is provided with safety-chains, and in ad¬ 
dition to the regular couplings, between the trucks, 
safety-links are used. The buffers between the motors 
act as spacers for, and fit between plane surfaces in, the 
field-magnets. These spacers have a complete free¬ 
dom of movement which allows the field-magnets to 
rotate when the motor is in action. These buffers and 
spacers are so placed as to permit the interchange and 
reversal of the positions of the field-magnet without 
requiring change in the position of the spacers. The 
motors are supported on carriers bolted to the field- 















THE B. &> O. B. B. ELECTBIC LOCOMOTIVE. 375 


magnets, and rest in adjustable hangers carried on 
half-elliptical springs placed on top of the frame and 
bumpers. The frames thus carry the motors by car¬ 



riers and springs, and this load is carried in turn by 
rubber blocks in a cast iron casing. (Fig. 203.) 


.aiata- 





























y/b LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 



Fig. 203.—Side View of One Truck. 








































































































































































































THE B. & O. B. B. ELECTBIC LOCOMOTIVE. 377 

The cab is of sheet steel and the arrangement is 
such that all the commutators are visible to the motor- 
men. 

The locomotive is fitted with sand-boxes, and West- 
inghouse automatic driver- and train-brakes are pro¬ 
vided for all wheels, bearing upon the flanges and out¬ 
side tread only. A brass signal-gong 8 inches in diam¬ 
eter is placed in the cab to be rung from either end of 
the locomotive. The headlights, of which there are 
two, are placed on the top of the shields at each end, 
and are twenty-three-inch lights of Baltimore & Ohio 
standard pattern. (See Fig. 202.) One shield also car¬ 
ries a Baltimore & Ohio standard whistle, blown by com¬ 
pressed air. The other shield carries a standard bell, 
operated by an automatic air-pressure bell-ringer. The 
locomotive is painted with the standard color and de¬ 
sign of the Baltimore & Ohio Company. 

The gearless motors are four in number, two to each 
truck, flexibly supported and transmitting their power 
to the wheels through the flexible connections de¬ 
scribed above. They are of pyramidal shape, are the 
largest railway motors in the world, and, while ponder¬ 
ous in appearance, are by no means so bulky as might 
be expected from the heavy work they have to per¬ 
form. Each has six poles and six sets of carbon 
brushes, the brushes being connected to a yoke re¬ 
volving through 360 degrees to facilitate accessibility 
to them. It is possible to remove four brushes with¬ 
out disabling the motor. The field-spools are encased 
in sheet-iron cases and fitted over the pole-pieces bolted 
to the field-frame. The armatures are built of sheet- 
iron laminations, and are series drum-wound iron-clad. 


37 & LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING 



Fig. 204.—The Motor Unassembled 








THE B. 6 ° 0. B. B. ELECTBIC LOCOMOTIVE. 379 


The armature, with the commutator, is mounted upon 
and keyed to the hollow sleeve which is carried on 
the journals on the truck-frame. The inside diameter 
of the sleeve is about two and a half inches larger than 
the axle. The entire motor is practically fireproof. 
Each motor is rated at 360 H. P. and takes a normal 
current of 900 amperes. 

When normally placed, the motor rests in a position 
concentric to the axle, the clearance between the axle 
and the sleeve allowing of a flexible support. The in¬ 
terposition of the rubber cushions, through which the 
torque of the armature is transmitted to the driving- 
wheels, allows the armature to run eccentric to the axle 
when the motor departs from its normal position on ac¬ 
count of any unevenness in the track. The motor is 
designed to allow of ready removal of the field-frame 
for inspection or repair. 

A test of the first completed truck, representing one 
half of the locomotive, was made upon the tracks at the 
Schenectady shops of the General Electric Company. 
In order to obtain the necessary load a heavy six-wheel 
engine was made use of and the electric locomotive 
truck coupled to it. The machines were then sent 
in opposite directions and tugged at the connecting 
coupling as in a tug of war. The electric locomotive 
had a slight advantage over the steam-engine in weight 
on the driving-wheels, and pulled it up and down the 
track with apparent ease. For the same weight upon 
the drivers it was shown that the electric locomotive 
starts a greater load than the steam locomotive. The 
pull being constant throughout the entire revolution 
of the wheel, the difficulty of variation of pull with the 


3^0 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


crank-angle, as in the steam locomotive, is eliminated. 
The test also proved the driving-mechanism and anna- 
ture-couplings amply strong to transmit the torque of 
the armature to the axle. The controlling devices, 
etc., occupy the interior of the cab. The controller is 
erected in one half of the cab, and is of the series- 
parallel type. The reversing-lever projects through 
the upper plate of the controller-cover. The resist¬ 
ances are placed around the frame beneath the floor 
of the cab. The locomotive is equipped with a 1200 
to 3500 automatic circuit-breaker and one 2000-amp&re 
magnetic cut-out, a 5000-ampere illuminated dial Wes¬ 
ton ammeter, and one illuminated dial Weston volt¬ 
meter. The compressed air for the whistle and brakes 
is supplied by an oscillating cylinder electric air-pump, 
the air-tanks being placed at each end of the complete 
locomotive. In the cab are incandescent lights. 

Contact with the overhead conductor is effected by 
means of a sliding shuttlelike shoe of brass (Fig. 205), 



Fig. 205.—Shoe for Trolley. 

which is fixed to a flexible support fastened to the top 
of the cab. This“ trolley ” support is diamond-shaped 
and compressible, contracting and expanding as the 
height demands, and is arranged to lean on one side 



















THE B. & O. B. B. ELECTBIC LOCOMOTIVE. 38 1 

or the other as the locomotive runs on one side or 
the other of the overhead conductor. It is, how¬ 
ever, rigid in so far as movement forward or backward 
over the locomotive is concerned. The current is 
brought to the locomotive by means of cables con¬ 
nected to the shoe and fastened to the “ trolley ” sup 
port. 

The conductor is simply a reversed iron conduit or 



trough erected overhead on trusses in the open, and in 
the tunnel attached to the crown of the arch. In the 
open the conductor is directly over the centre of the 
track; in the tunnel over the centre line of the space 
between the tracks. It extends from Henrietta street 
on the south to Huntington avenue on the north, a 
distance of 15,000 feet. The conductor consists of 
two 3-inch iron Z bars f inch thick, riveted to a cover- 

































382 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

plate \ inch thick and 11^ inches wide, and is con¬ 
structed in sections 30 feet long. It weighs about 30 
pounds per foot. At intervals of 15 feet inside the 
tunnel there are suspended from the arch transverse 
frames, consisting of two 3-inch channels, held to¬ 
gether by plates 4 inches wide, and holding four cast¬ 
ings into which are fitted conical porcelain insulators. 
In the masonry of the tunnel are fitted the bolts 
necessary to support these frames. They are 2 feet 
6 inches long, have split ends, and extend 12 inches 
into the masonry. The bolts pass downward through 
the outside pair of insulators. The bolts attaching the 
conductors to the channel-frames pass through the 
inside pair of insulators and support an iron stirrup in 
which the conductor hangs; this method affords a 
double insulation. The height of the conductors 
above the level of the top of the rails is 17 feet 6 
inches in the tunnel, and they are fixed a little on each 
side of the centre line. This plan was adopted to 
avoid the risk of the conductors striking brakemen who 
might be standing on the top of passing freight cars. 
An additional precaution is provided in the shape of 
continuous wooden shields fastened to the iron stirrup 
which supports the conductors. 

From the positive bus on the railway switchboard 
eight cables of stranded copper, each of 500,000 c.m. 
cross-section, or a total cross-section of 4,000,000 c.m., 
pass to the overhead structure immediately outside the 
power-house, where connection is made to three feeder- 
cables of 1,000,000 c.m. cross-section each, and to the 
overhead conductor itself, which has an equivalent of 
1,000,000 c.m. cross-section. The negative bus is 


TW£ SPRAGUE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 383 


similarly connected to the rails, which are double- 
bonded with No. 0000 wire, and also to the return- 
cables laid in a wooden box between the tracks. Per¬ 
fect contact between bonds and web is obtained by 
using a hollow rivet on each end of each bond and ex¬ 
panding it, when inserted in the rail by, means of a 
conical steel pin. 

THE SPRAGUE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 

A Sixty-seven-ton Locomotive for Handling Heavy Freight. 

(Fig. 207.) 

The following illustration shows an electric loco¬ 
motive just completed at the Baldwin Locomotive 
Works after designs by Messrs. Sprague, Duncan & 
Hutchinson, of New York. It is intended for special 
experimental work in handling heavy freight and in 
switching, and was built for the North American com¬ 
pany for this purpose. The locomotive resembles 
somewhat the ordinary consolidation type used for 
heavy freight-yard work. There are four pairs of driv¬ 
ers coupled together by quarter-cranked connecting- 
rods. The frame and the superstructure are sym¬ 
metrical and the former is provided with freight-buffers 
and iron pilots. The pedestal-boxes are a special form 
made of cast steel and project inward, forming the 
brackets which carry the motors. The lower sides are 
arranged to be dropped out, so that the brasses can be 
readily replaced in the usual manner. These boxes are 
very large and heavy and perform the duty of carrying 
both the axles upon which the armatures are rigidly 
mounted and the field-magnets concentric to them. A 
Stirrup projects from the upper part of each to engage 


CO 


84 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 



Fig. 207. —Sprague Sixty-seven-ton Electric Locomotive. 1000 H.P. 



























































































































































































































THE SPRAGUE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 385 


the middle section of inverted elliptical springs. There 
are four sets of springs arranged on the double three- 
point suspension system. In this way the whole super¬ 
structure is carried on equalizing springs. The drivers 
are 56 inches in diameter, the end ones only being 
flanged. The motors, four in number and alternating 
in position, are of the “ Continental” iron-clad type, the 
field-magnets being formed of two steel castings, and 
having two field-coils placed at the ends of the motors, 
with their planes vertical, thus forming two consequent 
and two salient poles. The magnets are compound- 
wound, the shunt-field being light, and only sufficient 
to keep the speed within reasonable limits at light 
roads and for returning current to the line when run¬ 
ning on down grades. The armatures, which were 
built by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing 
Company, are of the slotted type, the slots having 
curved bottoms and tops and contracted gaps. Each 
slot carries four wires, but there is only one turn of 
wire to each bar of the commutator, and the wires are 
threaded through tubes imbedded in the slots. The 
winding is of the two-path type, giving the current only 
two paths in the armature. 

The motors are wound for 800 volts at 225 revolu¬ 
tions, this being the equivalent of thirty-five miles an 
hour when in multiple. They will safely carry 250 
amperes of current, giving each motor about 250 horse¬ 
power output at 93 per cent efficiency, and in emer¬ 
gencies can easily stand a great deal more than 250 am¬ 
peres of current. The motors will readily exert a con¬ 
stant draw-bar pull of over 10,000 pounds, and have a 
system of regulation, giving any speed from zero to 


386 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


thirty-five miles an hour, under full normal tractive 
effort. They can start very heavy loads, and have 
ample capacity to slip the wheels. The regulation is 
of the series-parallel system, with resistance thrown 
into, then cut out of, circuit, then again into circuit 
while changing. The groups are: first, all in series 
with and without variable resistance, then two in paral¬ 
lel by two in series, then four in parallel, with similar 
use of rheostat. The four motors are used all the time, 
there being no position in which one alone is cut out, 
not even in changing over. These various changes are 
effected by means of a large contact-cylinder on which 
the three main combinations are made, and a fireproof 
rheostat system, with the contact-arm geared in the 
proper ratio to the main cylinder. 

To effect the prompt operation of this controlling 
system, which can be moved slowly by hand, air-press¬ 
ure from the same tanks that supply the air-brakes is 
employed. This is automatically kept at a constant 
pressure by a special electric pump. It was deemed 
essential that it should be unnecessary for the engine- 
man to watch indicators or gauges of any kind in order 
to know on what switch position he was running, and 
to this end the air-valve, which he controls, is mounted 
on a small lever, so geared as to move back and forth 
as the main cylinder revolves. His hand is thus car¬ 
ried along, so that he knows intuitively the position of 
the cylinder, and has no reason, ordinarily, to use his 
eyes and ears for purposes inside the cab. There is a 
reversing-switch, which is automatically locked in all 
but the “off” position on the main cylinder, thus pre¬ 
venting reversal under wrong conditions. There are 


THE HEILMANN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 387 


ammeters, voltmeters, a whistle, bell, headlights,and the 
usual accessories. The system of brakes is that known 
as the “American,” and is applied to every wheel. The 
controlling apparatus is all carried in the cab, which is 
centrally mounted, has wedge-shaped ends and forward 
inclined sections running down to each end of the loco¬ 
motive. The cab is heavily framed, so as to carry two 
trolleys, the ends are narrowed, and hand-rails flank it 
on either side. 

The cab is provided with seats on either side, and 
the controlling apparatus is so arranged that the engine- 
man sits at the right side looking forward, no matter 
which way he is running, and has similar hand move¬ 
ment. Steps give access to the pilot platforms at either 
end, and ladders to the top of the cab. The total 
weight of the locomotive is about 134,000 pounds, 
equally distributed on the drivers. 

THE HEILMANN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 

The Heilmann electric locomotive, which was tried 
in January on the Havre section of the Chemin de 
Fer de l’Ouest in France, is a wide departure from the 
usual methods of electric traction. The system con¬ 
sists of a locomotive which carries a boiler and engine 
to furnish power to an electric generator, which sup¬ 
plies current to gearless motors on the eight axles of 
the locomotive. 

It is claimed that by this method of driving a 
greater stability or smoothness over the steam loco¬ 
motive is attained at high speeds, due to the smaller 
wheels that can be used at a greater number of revo- 


CO 


LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING 


88 



Fro. 208.—Heilmann Electric Locomotive. 















THE HElLMA NN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 389 


lutions and the absence of oscillations. The adher¬ 
ence and flexibility are greater, as a greater weight can 
be distributed and in a more advantageous manner 
with sixteen wheels than with four, to which the steam 
locomotive is limited in order to possess sufficient 
flexibility to round curves. The boiler capacity in the 
new system can be made much larger, and by the use 
of economical engines power can be supplied more 
cheaply even at the points of final application than 
with wasteful locomotive engines. Accessory advan¬ 
tages claimed are that all parts of the machinery requir¬ 
ing attention are readily accessible and as directly under 
the eye of the attendant as the machinery of a steam¬ 
ship ; the analogy is further carried out by the fire-room 
and machinery being entirely separated. The lubrica¬ 
tion is more efficient and easily attended to, and the 
track is subjected to lighter wear on account of the 
absence of the “pounding” incident to the use of 
steam locomotives. 

The locomotive is 52 feet long between buffers, and 
supported by two trucks with four axles each, with an 
electric motor on each axle ; the entire weight is no 
tons. 

The boiler is of the marine locomotive type with a 
corrugated furnace. It is 26 feet in length and some¬ 
what over 6 feet in diameter, with 1550 square feet of 
heating-surface ; the pressure is 160 pounds. A coal- 
bunker and water-tank of 6 and 10 tons capacity re¬ 
spectively are placed on each side of the boiler. The 
engine is of the compound type, the high- and low- 
pressure cylinders being on opposite sides of the 
cranks, which are at an angle of 180 degrees. Its 


39 ° LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


weight is 11,000 pounds, or 20 pounds per effective 
horse-power. The consumption of steam is 23 pounds 
per horse-power hour. 

The engine is direct-connected to a 6-pole, ring- 
armature (see Fig. 201), continuous-current dynamo, 
which is so wound as to work with three, two, or even 
one pair of carbon brushes. The external diameter of 



Fig. 209.—Generator of Heilmann Locomotive. 

the frame is 79 inches and of the armature 49 inches. 
The dynamo is separately excited by a compound 
dynamo run by a small engine, and with 360 revolu¬ 
tions produces an available horse-power of 600, with a 
maximum horse-power of 800 with 800 revolutions. 
If the dynamo stops at one of the engine dead-points, 










THE HEILMANN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE. 391 


the exciter is connected to the armature for an instant, 
which causes the former to work as a motor, and carry 
the engine beyond the dead point. 

The motors have four poles and steel frames cast in 
a single piece. The toothed armature is 25 inches in 



Ekc..World 


Fig. 210.—Motor of Heilmann Locomotive. 

diameter, with a large air-gap to reduce eddy currents. 
It is mounted on a steel tube, supporting the whole 
weight, which is fitted on the axle with a bushing of 
woodite, an elastic insulating material impervious to 
oil. The steel tube terminates at one of its extremi¬ 
ties in an elastic coupling, which prevents jerking in 
starting. The eight motors form two groups, each 
comprising four motors coupled in parallel. In start¬ 
ing the two groups are connected in series and then in 
parallel after a certain speed has been attained. 

These motors are of the iron-clad type. As shown 
in Fief. 210 cross-section of motor, the fields are con- 

o 

nected to the axle, which is stationary; the four poles 































































































































































































































39 2 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 


of the armature are fastened to the large cylinder, 
which is rigidly connected to the driving-wheels; the 
driving-wheels revolve on the axle. In Fig. 211 it will 



be seen that the method of mounting the motors is 
different. In this case the fields are carried by a cross- 
connection from each side of the frames. The arma¬ 
ture is mounted on the axle by a steel tube, which is 












































































REG ULA TION. 


393 


larger in diameter than the axle proper. This is for 
the purpose of allowing for oscillation of the frame or 
axle. In order to start the motors without a jerk 
there are driving-pins fit through spokes in the wheels 
which have heavy involute springs attached to them. 
Ihese pins bear against a lug which is attached to a 
disk connected to the armature, so that in any posi¬ 
tion the armature may drive the wheels and still run 
true with the bore of the pole-pieces. 


REGULATION. 

As the motor fields must have a fair degree of 
saturation to prevent sparking when the locomotive 
is running and pulling no train, it will be evident that 
under all operating conditions the motor fields are con¬ 
stant and fully saturated, which makes them entirely 
sparkless. The fields of the generator is separately 
excited by means of a small auxiliary engine and con¬ 
stant-potential dynamo which supplies the electric 
light. The main engine has a fixed cut-off at the 
most economical point at one-fourth stroke, and the 
speed is adjusted by the throttle. The engine varies in 
speed from 50 to 500 revolutions, and the strength 
of the generator from zero to the maximum strength. 
Steam is used expansively at a fixed cut-off. In 
starting an almost unlimited torque is secured by 
gradually increasing the generator field strength and 
speed, which sends a current through the motors 
rising smoothly from zero to the current sufficient to 
start the motor armature. If the field-controller and 
throttle are left in this initial position, the train will 


394 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

start smoothly, and will continue to move slowly, 
using the full current strength, but producing the cur¬ 
rent with about 50 volts, or one tenth of the full volt¬ 
age, and producing the power about of that re¬ 
quired at full speed by a steam-engine using steam 
expansively instead of as in a steam locomotive using 
steam full stroke. In order to increase the speed of 
the train the field-controller and throttle of the engine 
are manipulated until the engine is driving the gen¬ 
erator at full speedin a field of full strength. 

This, then, being the full power of the locomotive 
when a grade is reached which requires three times the 
former torque, the field is weakened to one third of its 
full strength. Then the train will move up the grade 
at one third of the full speed on the level, while using 
the same power as was required on the level. Under 
this method of control the electrical energy is used in 
such a way that its voltage is varied in proportion to the 
speed desired, and the amperes in proportion to the 
torque required. 

Weight of locomotive, 114 long tons, about 15,000 
pounds on each driver ; draw-bar power, 50,000 pounds. 
A load of 90 tons was hauled up gradients of 3 and 
8 in 1000 respectively, at a speed of 50 miles per hour 
in the former case, and in the latter 38 miles per hour. 

ALTERNATING-CURRENT LOCOMOTION. 

In writing the direct-current motor has only been 
dealt with, as that class is the most used and developed. 
There is another current, called the alternating cur¬ 
rent, which promises to develop into commercial value 


ALTERNATING-CURRENT LOCOMOTION. 395 

as a motive power. It has this advantage : that it can 
be varied at will by a transformer. A large current of 
small voltage can be transformed to a small current of 
high voltage or pressure, and for long-distance trans¬ 
mission it is better adapted than the direct current, as 
it can be* conveyed a great distance with a smaller 
wire than a direct current, because a small current of 
high voltage can be passed over the wire and then 
transformed to the desired current and pressure. 

The following description is of an alternating sys¬ 
tem, and it will be seen that the current that is used 
in the motors that run the locomotives is a direct cur¬ 
rent in the end: 

How Shall We Operate an Electric Railway Extending One 
Hundred Miles from the Power station ? * 

BY H. WARD LEONARD. 

Let us suppose that we are called upon to act as 
engineers for a steam railway desiring to operate its 
line by electric locomotives. There exists a very eco¬ 
nomical source of power, possibly a water-power, so 
situated that the length of railway to be operated in 
either direction is one hundred miles. 

Let us determine the leading points of the specifica¬ 
tion for such a road based upon our experience to this 
date, and after making the specification let us see 
whether we are to-day able to comply with the speci¬ 
fication, and if not what must be done before we can 
comply with it. 

* Read before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Feb¬ 
ruary 21, 1894. 






39^ LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING . 


The following features seem desirable, if not essen¬ 
tial, in such a railway : 

1. A single trolley contact shall be used for supply¬ 
ing; current to the locomotive. 

2. The electro-motive force upon the trolley shall 
not exceed 500 volts. 

3. There shall be no apparatus in motion and re¬ 
quiring attention between the power-station and the 
locomotive. 

4. No commutator, rheostat, or controlling device 
on the locomotive shall be subjected to a higher 
electro-motive force than 250 volts, and there shall be 
no sparking on any of the apparatus under any normal 
conditions. 

5. The entire control of the locomotive in either 
direction shall be effected by the movement of one 
lever. 

6. The load shall be started from dead rest by an 
amount of energy taken from the source of supply, 
which shall not exceed one quarter of the energy re¬ 
quired to operate at full speed on the level. 

7. The retardation of the load in coming down 
grades, and in stopping, shall be effected by convert¬ 
ing the motors into generators, which shall feed back 
current to the line, and thereby assist the power- 
stations in operating other locomotives. 

8. The motor must be reversible when operating at 
full speed, without damage to the motors or other 
apparatus. 

9. The efficiency of the system from power on the 
generator-shaft to the draw-bar pull of the locomotive 
shall be at least 50 per cent. 


A L TERN A TING-CUR REN T LO COMO IVON. 


397 


io. The locomotive shall produce at least 500 horse¬ 
power when operating at a speed of 80 miles per hour. 

It will be evident that we must use a high electro¬ 
motive force for operating over such great distances. 
The average distance over which the power is to be 
transmitted is 50 miles, and we find that in order to 
operate with a loss in conductors of 20 per cent we 
must have an initial electro-motive force of 20,000 
volts, in order to make the cost of copper about $20 
per kilowatt, which is about the best figure for cost of 
copper under the conditions. 

The alternating current must evidently be used for 
such an electro-motive force as this, and the single¬ 
phase alternating, since we have but one trolley con¬ 
tact. 

Let us start (see Fig. 212) with the standard iooo-volt 
single-phase alternators in our power-station, and con¬ 
vert by step-up transformers from 1000 to 20,000 volts 
required for the transmission-circuit. Since we are 
limited to 500 volts upon the trolley, we must insert 
at suitable points, say every two miles, a converter, 
which will transform the energy at 20,000 volts in the 
transmission-circuit to energy at 500 volts in the trol¬ 
ley-circuit, one pole of which latter circuit will be the 
rails. 

We have our energy delivered at our point of use 
with reasonable cost and efficiency and by simple and 
well-tried apparatus. But the energy is in the form of 
a single-phase alternating current which is not very 
flexible. 

We can operate a synchronous alternating-current 
motor by this current, but it cannot be regulated in 


39 8 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

speed or reversed in direction, and cannot be started 
under load, and will be thrown out of step if a large 
load be suddenly applied. As all of these conditions 
are required of locomotives, a motor operating by the 
alternating current evidently cannot be used directly. 

But it is a simple matter to start the synchronous 
motor without load, and when it reaches its synchro¬ 
nous speed it will perform work efficiently and satis¬ 
factorily, provided it be not subjected to violent fluc¬ 
tuations in the load applied to it. 

Evidently, then, what we need is some form of gear¬ 
ing between the synchronous motor and the axle 
which will give us the desired control and enable us to 
operate at any speed and in either direction. 

It is quite possible that this can be accomplished 
mechanically, and many ingenious devices for this pur¬ 
pose have been invented, but none seems to be suffi¬ 
ciently simple, reliable, and lasting for use on such a 
large scale. 

The equivalent of such a mechanical gear can, how¬ 
ever, be secured if we will make use of the synchro¬ 
nous motor merely to drive a continuous-current gen¬ 
erator on the same shaft at a constant speed, and use 
the continuous current so generated to supply the pro¬ 
pelling motors connected with the axles of the locomo¬ 
tives. 

Since the generator is used for the motors on one 
particular locomotive only, we can vary its electro¬ 
motive force at pleasure, and hence can produce a low 
electro-motive force for low speeds, and increase the 
electro-motive force to increase the speed, and by this 
means avoid the loss of energy which is wasted in 


A L TERN A TING-CURRENT L 0 COMO TION. 399 

rheostats when motors are started under load, and 
when connected as usual upon a source of constant 
electro-motive force. 

In order to secure rapid changes in the electro-motive 
force of this continuous-current generator at will it will 
be best to have its field separately excited, which will 
also enable us to reverse its field at pleasure. The 
propelling motors can be series, shunt, or separately 
excited. The best results will be obtained by separately 
exciting the field, and keeping it fully and constantly 
excited, and reversing the motors by reversing the field 
of the generator, which of course will reverse the cur¬ 
rent in the armature alone of the motor. 

To secure this exciting current for the synchronous 
alternating motor, and also for the fields of the con¬ 
tinuous-current generator and motor, it will be best to 
drive by means of the alternating-motor armature, and 
if desired in the same field a continuous-current wind¬ 
ing connected to a commutator, from which will be led 
the current for exciting the fields of all three machines. 

Let us wind the fields for 250 volts, and also use 
this voltage for the continuous-current armatures. 
This pressure is perfectly safe and can be handled with 
impunity. 

Suppose now the locomotive to be at rest. The 
synchronous motor is running and driving the genera¬ 
tor armature at full speed in a field of no intensity, 
hence the propelling motors receive no current. We 
now make the first contact upon the rheostat in the 
o-enerator field-circuit and let the resistance in the 

b 

rheostat be such as to produce say 25 volts at the 
eenerator-brushes, 

o 


400 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

This 25 volts will supply a very large current to the 
motor armature at rest in its saturated field, and con¬ 
sequently will produce a sufficient torque to start the 
entire load and continue to move it at a slow speed. 

We are using 25 volts and let us say 2500 amperes 
in this circuit; this means 62,500 watts, and, disregard¬ 
ing transformation losses for simplicity, this means a 
current of 125 amperes from the trolley. When oper¬ 
ating at the rate of 500 horse-power at full speed, we 
shall need say 1800 amperes and 250 volts in our pro¬ 
pelling circuit, which is 450 kilowatts, and means 
roughly 900 amperes from the trolley. It is evident, 
therefore, that we can start the load with but a small 
fraction of the energy required for operation at full 
speed, and that there will be no danger of throwing 
the alternator out of step by applying but about one 
sixth of its full load and applying that gradually, as 
will be the case, as the load will follow the increase of 
the generator field strength, which, although rapid, is 
gradual, and not instantaneous. 

If we are operating at full speed, and desire to bring 
the locomotive to rest, we gradually but rapidly reduce 
the strength of the generator field by manipulating 
the rheostat in its field-circuit so as to reduce to zero 
the current exciting this field; the electro-motive force 
produced by the generator then rapidly falls below the 
counter-electro-motive force of the motors, which are 
being driven in a constant field by the momentum 
of the moving load, and the motors consequently be¬ 
come generators, and supply current to the former 
generator, which now becomes a motor, and, driving 
the alternator, feeds current back through the trolley, 


D R UM-A RMA 7 ' URE. 


401 


thereby not only bringing the locomotive smoothly 
and rapidly to rest, but saving the energy usually 
wasted upon the brake-shoes. 

Under this arrangement, if we are using steam- 
engines as the source of power, we never subject the 
engines to the violent fluctuations ordinarily met with 
in electric railways, and by reason of having a com¬ 
paratively steady load can secure very high economy 
in the consumption of steam ; and since we have elimi¬ 
nated the excessive load in starting, we can very much 
reduce the capacity of the engines, generators, and 
conductors over usual requirements. 

The reversal of the motors is very simple and 
smooth by this method. The lever of the rheostat in 
the generator field-circuit is moved so as first to reduce 
the current to zero, and then increase it again to its 
maximum, but in the opposite direction around the 
field. The reversal of the motor armature, following 
the gradual change in the strength of the generator 
field, is extremely smooth, and the armature is not sub¬ 
jected to any sudden strain. No sparking will be met 
with under any condition, upon either the generator or 
motor commutators, or upon the field-rheostat. 

D RUM-ARMATURE. 

It is well now to make further statement in re¬ 
gard to drum-armatures, as these are the armatures 
mostly used in motors. The armature-core is made up 
of disks of soft iron rigidly fastened to the shaft. 
These disks are insulated one from the other as in the 
ring-armature (Fig. 165). The winding is over tiie 
surface of this core from end to end. The motor 


402 LO COMO T 1 VE MECHA NISM AND ENGINEERING . 


armature as now made is slotted, and the wire laid in 
the grooves. This is of great importance, as it keeps 
the wire from being drawn or twisted on the core. 
Fig. 197 shows o, drum-armature complete. Its 






A. SINGLE PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR OF 1,000 VOLTS. 

B- STEP-UP TRANSFORMER FROM 1,000 TO 20,000 VOLTS. 

C. TRANSMISSION CIRCUIT OF 20.000 VOLTS. 

D. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER, 20,000 TO 500 VOLTS. 

E. TROLLEY 

F. TROLLEY WIRE, 500 VOLTS. 

G. GROUND. 

H. SYNCHRONOUS SINGLE PHASE MOTOR. 

I. CONTINUOUS CURRENT COMMUTATOR OF 250 VOLTS SUPPLYING FIELDS OF H, K A(fo U 
K. CONTINUOUS CURRENT GENERATOR, 250 VOLTS. 

t. CONTINUOUS CURRENT MOTOR, 250 VOLTS. 

M. REVERSING RHEOSTAT IN SEPARATELY EXCITED FIELD OF K. 

N. DRIVING WHEEL OF LOCOMOTIVE 

THESE MOTORS H, K AND L ARE ON THE LOCOMOTIVE,. 


POWER HOUSE 


Fig. 212. —Method of Operating Electric Locomotive on a 
Road One Hundred Miles Long. 


merits are these : The armature can be made very 
long in proportion to its diameter, and the amount of 
dead wire is reduced to minimum, where with the 

























































































CALCULATING LOT A MOTOR OF A GIVEN LLP. 403 

ring-armature the wire on the inner side is of no prac¬ 
tical value except to convey the current, that is, in 
regard to cutting lines of force. 

The poles in a drum-armature are formed the same 
as in a ring-armature, and are attracted the same as a 
ring armature. The current also passes two ways 
around the armature. The winding is cross-connected 
on the ends in various ways. The standard motor arma¬ 
tures have their coils wound on formers and insulated. 
Then all that is required is for the armature-wander to 
place the formed coils in their respective slots around 
the core, and then connect them up to the com¬ 
mutator, there being details in the way of binding, 
heading, and other minor details. 

METHOD OF CALCULATING FOR A MOTOR OF A 

GIVEN H. P. 

In the general method of designing a motor of a 
given power and speed it is well known that a dynamo 
will run as a motor, so that calculations for a motor are 
based on the same principles as applied to a dynamo. 
If it is desired to construct a motor of, say, 10 H. P. 
to run at 500 revolutions at 200 volts as an example. 
The motor if run as a dynamo should be able to generate 
a current of 7460 watts ; as 1 H. P. = 746 watts, 10 
H. P. = 7460 watts as the required output. A motor 
to give out 7460 watts must be allowed to absorb 8776 
watts, and if its electrical efficiency is to be 90 per cent it 
must generate 180 volts. Dividing 8776 watts by 180 
volts, w r e find 48.75 amperes as the current it must 
take at normal load. Then if the motor is designed 


404 LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISM AND ENGINEERING. 

so with powerful field-magnets, and is capable of gen¬ 
erating a current of 50 amperes at 180 volts at a speed 
of 500 revolutions, it will be a 10 H. P. motor. 

METHOD OF DESIGNING A MOTOR TO RUN ON A CIR¬ 
CUIT OF A CERTAIN POTENTIAL OR VOLTAGE. 

Suppose it is desired to construct a motor to run on 
a circuit of 50 volts with a current of 1 ampere. This 
means if run as a motor it should be able to give out 
1 ampere of current at 50 volts pressure. To obtain 
this voltage about fifty yards of wire must be used on 
the armature. This is allowing one yard per volt gener¬ 
ated, and it will be found in referring to a wire table 
that about half a pound of wire will answer the re¬ 
quirements. As to the field-magnets, they must be 
worked with about five pounds of 24 wire, and, con¬ 
nected in series with the armature, will give a total 
resistance of 49.5 ohms with a voltage of 50 volts. As 
the resistance of 24 wire to the pound is 9 ohms, then 
five and a half pounds gives 49.5 ohms. Then, accord¬ 
ing to Ohm’s law, current = E. M. F. divided by resist¬ 
ance = 50 -i-49.5 = 1 ampere, approximately. 


ELECTRICAL UNITS. 


405 


ELECTRICAL UNITS. 

AMPERE. 

The practical unit of electrical current strength. It is 
the measure of the current produced by an electro¬ 
motive force of one volt through the resistance of one 
ohm in electric quantity is at the rate of one coulomb 
per second. Its best analogy is derived from water. 
Assuming the electric current to be represented by a 
current of water, the pressure-head or descent produc¬ 
ing such current would be the electro-motive force. 
The current might be measured in gallons or other 
units per second. In analogy these gallons would be 
coulombs. 

AMPERE-SECOND. 

is a coulomb. The number of coulombs passed per 
second gives the amperes of current. 

AMPERE-MINUTE. 

The quantity of electricity passed by a current of 
one ampere in one minute as sixty coulombs. 

AMPERE-HOUR. 

The quantity of electricity passed by a current of 
one ampere in one hour. 

THE VOLT. 

The practical unit of electro-motive force or poten¬ 
tial difference. An electro-motive force of one volt 


406 locomotive mechanism and engineering. 

will cause a current of ampere to flow through a re 
sistance of one ohm. The rate of cutting 100,000,000 
lines of force per second by a conductor produces one 
volt of E. M. F. 

9 


WATT. 

The practical unit of electric activity, rate of work 
or rate of energy. It is the rate of work done by a cur¬ 
rent of one ampere urged by one volt E. M. F., as 
746 watts equal to one electrical H. P., as 50 X 10 am¬ 
peres = 500 watts. 


KILOWATT. 

The kilowatt is a unit of 1000 watts ; a machine of 
15,000 watts output = 15 k.w’s, or 15,000 watts -r- 746 
watts = 20 H. P., approximately. 

AIR-BRAKES ON ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. 

Means for stopping an electric locomotive must be 
provided as with the steam locomotive. The question 
naturally arises: How can the air be compressed on an 
electric locomotive if there is no steam ? 

This is very easily overcome. Instead of using a 
compressor-pump driven by steam the compressor is 
operated by electricity. Fig. 213 shows a compressor 
complete, and on a locomotive, as shown on the left- 
hand side, is a small iron-clad electric motor. Fastened 
to the armature-shaft is a small pinion, which meshes 
in a gear-wheel of larger diameter. These gears are 
enclosed in a case, as shown by the drawing, which 


AIR-BRAKES ON ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES . 407 


case is under the compressor-cylinder. Projecting 
from the gear-case under the cylinder are two cranks. 
These cranks are driven by the gears. Leading from 



„..ANK ARMS 


RGE GEAR WHEEL 


PINION WHEEL 


VALVE 


IRON CLAD MOTOR 

V « U V c. 

PUMP 

Fig. 213.—Electric-driven Air-compressor for Electric Loco¬ 
motive. 


CROSSHEAD 
-SLIDING BAR 


GUIDES 


A AND B 

RECEIVING AND DISCHARGE 
VALVE TO AIR CYLINDER. 


LINKS 


these cranks are two rods, whose upper ends are at¬ 
tached to sliding blocks on each side of compressor- 
cylinder. There is a cross-bar or head attached to these 





































































































































































408 locomotive mechanism and engineering . 

two sliding blocks. To the cross-head is fastened the 
piston-rod of the compressor, which enters the cylinder 
driving the piston-head. The operation then is sim¬ 
ple. The motor armature rotating drives the gears 
which operate the crank-arms, which cause the piston- 
head to draw in and compress the air into a reservoir. 
There is provided suitable receiving- and discharge- 
valves in the air-cylinder, as all steam air-compressors 
have an automatic governor to stop them when a cer¬ 
tain predetermined pressure is reached in the reser¬ 
voir. 

So is the electric-driven compressor provided with 
a regulator. When the air-pressure becomes great 
enough, or as desired, the motor is stopped by the 
current being cut off and a suitable resistance thrown 
in circuit. When the pressure falls from any cause 
the current will again flow to the motor, causing it to 
compress more air, This is done automatically and 
without attention. There are many different ways of 
connecting the motor to the compressor, and the one 
shown is taken as a typical one used on the Metro¬ 
politan Elevated Railroad in Chicago. These motors 
run at a speed of 650 revolutions per minute on 450 
volts, and develop 3J- H. P., and will stand an increase 
of voltage. 

The space occupied is 15JX30J; weight, 400 
pounds. The regular standard air-brake systems are 
used in connection with this compressor, such as the 
Westinghouse and New York air-brakes, of which a 
full description is given in the chapter under that head 
in this book. 


CON TROLLER CO MB IN A TIONS. 


409 


CONTROLLER COMBINATIONS. 

(Pages 363-365. 1 to 10 .) 

1 . All resistance in, motors in series. 

2 . One half resistance out, motors in series. 

3 . All resistance “ , “ “ “ 

4 . All resistance in, series with one motor. 

5 . One half resistance in, series with one motor. 

6 . All resistance out, one motor in circuit alone. 

7 . One half resistance in, circuit with one motor cut 

out. 

8 . Motors in parallel, all resistance in. 

9 . Motors in parallel with half resistance in. 

10 . Motors in parallel with all resistance out. 






, 



























INDEX 


A 

PAGE 

Accidents to boiler and attachments..11—13 

Air-brakes on electric locomotives.406-40S 

, New York.288-306 

, Westinghouse.226-282 

Air holes. 16 

Air-pump, New York.292-295 

, Westinghouse.230-235 

Ammeter..350, 351 

Ampere. 405 

Arm, lifting. 67 

, reversing. 68 

Armatures. 329 

, drum. 401 

, ring.330, 331 

Arresters, lightning. 355 

B 

Bar, four-bar type of guide. 26 

Bars, crown. 1 

, equalizing. 38 

, guide...24, 25 

, wear of guide.. 25 

Block, break-joint. 23 

, link. 68 

Blowout, magnetic. 357 

Boiler, Belpaire. 1 

, wagon-top. 2 

411 




























412 


INDEX. 


t’AGE 

Boiler, water-line in locomotive . 3, 4 

Bolt, binder. 40 

, wedge. 40.41 

Boxes, driving . 40 

Brasses, crank-pin. 48 

, main-rod. 48 

Breaker, automatic circuit. 35 I_ 354 

Breaking down.30, 34 

Bursting, dry pipe. 13 

C 

Cap-pedestal. 37 

Cards, indicator. 98 

Casting-bed. 18 

Circuit-breaker, automatic. 35 i - 354 

Circuit, closed winding. 332 

Chock . 43 

Clamp, valve-stem... 31 

Clearance, inside..... 63 

Cocks, gauge. 4 

Coils, resistance. 344 

Compressor, air, elec, driven. 407 

Condensation, cylinder.95, 96 

Controller, series parallel. 361 

Core, armature. 330 

Current, alternating. 394 

, Foucault. 323 

Curve, expansion. 101 

Cylinder, locomotive steam. 18 

D 

Designing motor.404 

Diaphragm. 6 

down. 15 

Disconnecting.30-34 

Dome. 2 

Drum armature.401 



































INDEX . 413 

E 

PAGE 

Eccentric. 64 

, angular advance of.65, 66 

, centre of. 65 

» slipped.77, 78 

End stub .. 49 

Engine, keying up an. 53 

, lame . 83 

, rods for eight-wheel passenger. 49 

, six-wheel connected. 50 

Engines, compound, intercepting-valve.175-180 

F 

Fields, electric-motor.319-322 

Fire-box. 6 

, fire knocked out of. 12 

Foaming. 4 

Force, adhesive. 60 

, counter-electro-motive.338-341 

, tractive. 60 

Frames, consolidation engine.36, 37 

, locomotive. 35 

, , types of.. 35 

G 

Gauge, diaphragm. 204 

, heavy indicating. 207 

, light “ . 207 

, steam. 204 

, tube.204, 205 

Gib broken. 33 > 34 

Glasses, automatic valve in. 6 

broken. 10 

water-gauge. 5 

Governor, Mason.282-28** 

, New York air-pump. 296 

































414 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Governor, Westinghouse air-pump.252-255, 278-282 

Gramme ring . 331 

Groove, breaking. 19 

H 

Hanger, spring . 38 

Head, cross .24, 25 

, piston. 22 

I 

Indicator, the Crosby. 99 

, twenty years with the. 100 

Injector, Metropolitan double-tube.197-200 

, Reagan.187, 188 

, Rue. 196 

, capacity of. 196 

, Sellers’ restarting .192-194 

, capacity of.. 194 

Injectors... . 181 

, capacity of. 183 

, failure of.183-185 

, lifting.. 184 

, parts of. 182 

, operation of. 181 

, simple illustration of. 183 

, unlifting and restarting. 184 

J 

Jaws, pedestal.. 36 

Joints, bail. 15 

, knuckle. 51 

K 

Kilowatt... 406 




























INDEX 415 

L 

PAGE 

Lap, increase. 63 

, inside. 63 

, outside. 63 

, valve without. 64 

Lead, increase of. 72 

Line, atmospheric. 100 

, compression. 101 

, exhaust and back-pressure. 101 

, steam. 100 

Link.66, 67 

, radius of. 67 

Links, blocking up.78, 79 

Locomotion, alternating current.394-401 

Locomotive, compound, Baldwin...102-113 

, accidents with. .113-116 

, calculating power of compound. 94 

, Brooks, “ “ ..145-147 

, compound. 87 

, electric (France).371, 372 

, B. & O. R. R.372-383 

, express, P. R. R. 171-174 

, generating current for electric.311 —313 

, Heilman electric.387-393 

, generator. 393 

, regulation...393, 394 

, passenger, N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R.126-129 

, Pittsburg.133-136 

, accidents with.136-139 

, Rhode Island, accidents with.131—133 

, Reading, single-driver. 167 

, Richmond compound.155-163 

, breaking down of.. ..163-166 

, Schenectady. 116-123 

, accidents with.... . 123-126 

, Sprague. 383-387 

, tandem .147—153 

, accidents with .153, 154 

, two-cylinder, ... ..... ,.. = ,139-1^4 








































INDEX . 


416 

PAGE 

Locomotives, elaborate test of.* 87 

, simple illustration of.. .90-94 

Lubricator, air-pump. .208-210 

, Detroit.209-218 

to index.213-217 

M 

Motion, breaking down of valve. 79 

, parts of link. 65 

, reversing.71, 72 

Motor, multipolar . 323 

, reversing of.341-344 

, spring mounted steel. 369 

, Westinghouse. 368 

Motors, different kinds of electric. 366 

N 

Netting . 8 

Nozzle, exhaust.8-14 

Nut, jam. 40 

O 

Oil-cellars...... 41 

-cups. 52 

p 

Packing, piston-head.22-24 

Passage, steam and exhaust. 18 

Pin, crank, on dead-centre.81, 82 

, rocker-arm . 68 

, saddle. 67 

, worn saddle. .... 84 

Pipe, dry... 16 

Pipes, steam... 14 





























INDEX. 417 

PAGE 

Plate, balanced. 2I 

, follower. 24 

Polarity, change of.315, 3l6 

Ports, exhaust. 20 

, steam.18-20 

Pressure, terminal. IO i 

Priming. 5 

, effect of. 5 

Pump, air, improved.... .261-268 

Q 

Quadrant, marking of. 85 

R 

Regulator, controller and speed.360-365 

, Foster steam. 218-221 

, Mason.221-225 

Regulation. 393 

Rheostat. 344 

, starting. 346 

Rigging, spring.37, 38 

, breaking down.42, 43 

Rod, eccentric. 66 

, main. 48 

, broken. 60 

Rods, breaking of. 58 

, side. 49 

, for consolidation engine.49-51 

S 

Saddle link. 67 

spring. 37 

Sand. 13 

Seats, valve . 18 

Shaft, tumbling . 67, 68 































INDEX. 


418 

PAGE 

Shoes, driving-box. 45 

Splice-frame. 36 

Spring, equalizing. .. 76 

Springs, driving. 37 

Steam, dry. 5 

, temperature of. 19 

Steam-chest. ... 18 

Steaming, poor. 14 

Straps, eccentric. t . 66 

, rod. 51 

Studs. 14 

Suspension, method of. 370 

T 

Tables I and II.85, 86 

Tire, broken. 46 

U 

Units, electrical.405, 406 

V 

Valve-brake, engineer’s, N. Y.298-301 

> D. 2I 

, difference in travel of. 

discharge, equalizing, Westinghouse.244-252 

, equalizing, improved. 268-278 

, exhaust, cavity of. 2I 

. lap of. 6 3 

, lead of steam. 

motion. 

release or relief. ^2 

, retaining, Westinghouse. 2 6 $ 

9 Richardson, balanced. 21 

> safet >’ .. 

, Kinney. 203, 204 































INDEX. 


419 


PAGE 

Valve-brake, Richardson.200-203 

, setting. 81 

, slide. 63 

, throttle.. . .2,3 

, travel of. 65 

, triple, New York.201-203 

, quick-action.203-206 

, Westinghouse, plain.242-244 

, quick-action.235-242 

Volt. 405 

Voltmeter. 347-350 

, attaching.347 

W 

Water, changing..4, 5 

, impurities. 4 

, raising of. 3 

Wedge. 4 ° 

Wedges, setting up. 4 2 

Wheel, blind.,. 47 

, broken driving. 47 

Winding, armature. 33 1 

, field-magnet. 3 2 4 

, shunt. 3 2 5 

Watt. 4 °& 

Y 

Yoke, field-magnet. 3 2 ° 

, valve. 2 3 

, broken. 3 2 

, finding a...*.. 32 































SHORT-TITLE CATALOGUE 

OF THE 

PUBLICATIONS 


OF 

JOHN WILE Y & SONS, 

New York. 

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 
ARRANGED UNDER SUBJECTS. 

-- i 

Descriptive circulars sent on application. 

Books marked with an asterisk are sold at net prices only. 

All books are bound in cloth unless otherwise stated. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Cattle Feeding—Diseases of Animals—Gardening, Etc. 


Armsby’s Manual of Cattle Feeding,...12mo, $1 75 

Downing’s Fruit and Fruit Trees.8vo, 5 00 

Kemp’s Landscape Gardening...12mo, 2 50 

Stockbridge’s Rocks and Soils. .8vo, 2 50 

Lloyd’s Science of Agriculture.8vo, 4 00 

Loudon’s Gardening for Ladies. (Downing.).12mo, 1 50 

Steel’s Treatise on tbe Diseases of the Ox.Svo, 6 00 

“ Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog.8vo, 3 50 


Grotenfelt’s The Principles of Modern Dairy Practice. (Woll.) 

12mo, 2 00 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Building—Carpentry—Stairs, Etc. 


Berg’s Buildings and Structures of American Railroads.4to, 7 50 

Birkmire’s Architectural Iron and Steel.Svo, 3 50 

“ Skeleton Construction in Buildings.8vo, 3 00 

1 















Birkmire’s Compound Riveted Girders.8vo, 

“ American Theatres—Planning and Construction.8vo, 

Carpenter’s Heating and Ventilating of Buildings.8vo, 

Freitag’s Architectural Engineering.8vo, 

Kidder’s Architect and Builder’s Pocket-book.Morocco flap, 

Hatfield’s American House Carpenter. 8vo, 

“ Transverse Strains.- .. .8vo, 

Monckton’s Stair Building—Wood, Iron, and Stone.4to, 

Gerhard’s Sanitary House Inspection.16mo, 

Downing and Wightwick’s Hints to Architects... .8vo, 

“ Cottages.8vo, 

Holly’s Carpenter and Joiner. .18mo, 

Worcester’s Small Hospitals- -Establishment and Maintenance, 
including Atkinson’s Suggestions for Hospital Archi¬ 
tecture.12mo, 

The World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893. 4to, 


$2 00 
3 00 

3 00 
2 50 

4 00 

5 00 
5 00 
4 00 
1 00 
2 00 
2 50 

75 


1 25 

2 50 


ARMY, NAVY, Etc. 

Military Engineering—Ordnance—Port Charges, Etc. 

Cooke’s Naval Ordnance.8vo, 

Metcalfe’s Ordnance and Gunnery. 12 mo, with Atlas, 

Ingalls’s Handbook of Problems in Direct Fire.8vo, 

“ Ballistic Tables. 8vo, 

Buckuill’s Submarine Mines and Torpedoes.8vo, 

Todd and Whall’s Practical Seamanship . 8vo, 

Mahan’s Advanced Guard. 18 mo, 

Permanent Fortifications. (Mercur.).Svo, half morocco, 

Wheeler’s Siege Operations. 8vo, 

Woodhull’s Notes on Military Hygiene. 12 mo, morocco, 

Dietz’s Soldier’s First Aid. 12 mo, morocco, 

Young's Simple Elements of Navigation.. 12mo, morocco flaps, 

Reed’s Signal Service. 

Phelps’s Practical Marine Surveying.8vo, 

Very’s Navies of the World.8vo, half morocco, 

Bourne’s Screw Propellers.4to, 


12 50 
5 00 
4 00 
1 50 
4 00 


7 50 


1 50 
7 50 

2 00 
2 50 

1 25 

2 50 
50 

2 50 

3 50 
5 00 


2 





























Hunter’s Port Charges.8vo, half morocco, 

* Dredge’s Modern French Artillery. 4 to, half morocco, 

“ Record of the Transportation Exhibits Building, 
World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893 .. 4 to, half morocco, 

Mercur’s Elements of the Art of War.8vo, 

“ Attack of Fortified Places. 12 mo, 

Chase’s Screw Propellers.8vo, 

Wiuthrop’s Abridgment of Military Law. 12 mo, 

De Brack’s Cavalry Outpost Duties. (Carr.)... . 18 mo, morocco, 

Cronkhite’s Gunnery for Non-com. Officers.I81110, morocco, 

Dyer’s Light Artillery. 12 mo, 

Sharpe’s Subsisting Armies. 18 mo, 

. 18 mo, morocco, 

Powell’s Army Officer’s Examiner. 12 mo, 

Hoff’s Naval Tactics. 8vo, 

Bruff’s Ordnance and Gunnery.8vo, 

ASSAYING. 


Smelting—Ore Dressing—Alloys, Etc. 


Furman’s Practical Assaying.8vo, 

Wilson’s Cyanide Processes. 12 mo, 

Fletcher’s Quant. Assaying with the Blowpipe.. 12 mo, morocco, 

Ricketts’s Assaying and Assay Schemes.8vo, 

* Mitchell’s Practical Assaying. (Crookes.).8vo, 

Thurston’s Alloys, Brasses, and Bronzes.....8vo, 

Kunhardt’s Ore Dressing.8vo, 

O’Driscoll’s Treatment of Gold Ores.8vo, 

ASTRONOMY. 


Practical, Theoretical, and Descriptive. 


Michie and Harlow’s Practical Astronomy.8vo, 

White’s Theoretical and Descriptive Astronomy. 12 mo, 

Doolittle’s Practical Astronomy.8vo, 

Craig’s Azimuth . 4 to, 

Gore’s Elements of Geodesy.8vo, 


$13 00 
20 00 

15 00 
4 00 
2 00 
3 00 

2 50 
2 00 
2 00 

3 00 
1 25 
1 50 

4 00 
1 50 
6 00 


3 00 
1 50 

1 50 
3 00 

10 00 

2 50 

1 50 

2 00 


3 00 
2 00 

4 00 
3 50 
2 50 


3 




























BOTANY. 

Gardening for Ladies, Etc. 


Westermaier’s General Botany. (Schneider.).8vo, $2 00 

Thome’s Structural Botany.18mo, 2 25 

Baldwin’s Orchids of New England.8vo, 1 50 

Loudon’s Gardening for Ladies. (Downing.).12mo, 1 50 


BRIDGES, ROOFS, Etc. 

Cantilever—Highway—Suspension. 


Boiler’s Highway Bridges.8vo, 2 00 

* " The Thames River Bridge.4to, paper, 5 00 

Burr’s Stresses in Bridges..8vo, 3 50 

Merriman & Jacoby’s Text-book of Roofs and Bridges. Part 

1., Stresses.8vo, 2 50 

Merriman & Jacoby’s Text-book of Roofs and Bridges. Part 

11., Graphic Statics.8vo. 2 50 

Merriman & Jacoby’s Text-book of Roofs and Bridges. Part 

111., Bridge Design.8vo, 5 00 

Merriman & Jacoby’s Text-book of Roofs and Bridges. Part 

IV., Continuous, Draw, Cantilever, Suspension, and 

Arched Bridges. (In preparation). 

Crehore’s Mechanics of the Girder.8vo, 5 00 

Du Bois’s Strains in Framed Structures.4to, 10 00 

Greene’s Roof Trusses.8vo, 1 25 

“ Bridge Trusses.8vo, 2 50 

“ Arches in Wood, etc.8vo, 2 50 

Waddell’s Iron Highway Bridges.8vo, 4 00 

Wood’s Construction of Bridges and Roofs.8vo, 2 00 

Foster’s Wooden Trestle Bridges.4to, 5 00 

*Morison’s The Memphis Bridge.Oblong 4to, 10 00 

Johnson’s Modern Framed Structures.4to, 10 00 

CHEMISTRY. 


Qualitative—Quantitative—Organic—Inorganic, Etc. 

Fresenius’s Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Johnson.).8vo, 4 00 

“ Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Allen.).8vo, 6 00 

M “ “ “ (Bolton.).8vo, 1 50 


4 

























Crafts’s Qualitative Analysis. (Schaeffer.).12rno, $1 50 

Perkins’s Qualitative Analysis.12ino, 1 00 

Thorpe’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis.18mo, 1 50 

Classen’s Analysis by Electrolysis. (Herrick.).8vo, 3 00 

Stockbridge’s Rocks and Soils...8vo, 2 50 

O’Brine’s Laboratory Guide to Chemical Analysis.8vo, 2 00 

Mixter’s Elementary Text-book of Chemistry.12mo, 1 50 

Wulling’s Inorganic Phar. and Med. Chemistry.12mo, 2 00 

Mandel’s Bio-chemical Laboratory.12mo, 1 50 

Austen’s Notes for Chemical Students.12mo, 

Schimpf’s Volumetric Analysis.12mo, 2 50 

Hammarsten’s Physiological Chemistry (Mandel.).8vo, 4 00 

Miller’s Chemical Physics.8vo, 2 00 

Pinner’s Organic Chemistry. (Aus'ten.).12mo, 1 50 

Kolbe’s Inorganic Chemistry.12mo, 1 50 

Ricketts and Russell’s Notes on Inorganic Chemistry (Non- 

metallic).Oblong 8vo, morocco, 75 

Drechsel’s Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.).12mo, 1 25 

Adriance’s Laborator}'- Calculations.12mo, 1 25 

Troilius’s Chemistry of Iron.8vo, 2 00 

Allen’s Tables for Iron Analysis.8vo, 

Nichols’s Water Supply (Chemical and Sanitary).8vo, 2 50 

Mason’s “ “ “ “ “ .8vo, 5 00 

Spencer’s Sugar Manufacturer’s Handbook. 12mo, morocco flaps, 2 00 

Wiechmann’s Sugar Analysis. 8vo, 2 50 

“ Chemical Lecture Notes.12mo, 3 00 

DRAWING. 


Elementary—Geometrical—Topographical. 
Hill’s Shades and Shadows and Perspective. . . .{In preparation) 


Mahan’s Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.).2 vols., 8vo, 3 50 

MacCord’s Kinematics.8vo, 5 00 

“ Mechanical Drawing.8vo, 4 00 

“ Descriptive Geometry.8vo, 3 00 

Reed’s Topographical Drawing. (II. A.).4to, 5 00 

Smith’s Topographical Drawing. (Macmillan.).8vo, 2 50 

Warren s Free-hand Drawing .12mo, 1 00 


5 

































Warren’s Drafting Instruments... .12mo, $1 25 

“ Projection Drawing.12mo, 1 50 

“ Linear Perspective.12mo, 1 00 

“ Plane Problems.,.12mo, 1 25 

“ Primary Geometry.12mo, 75 

“ Descriptive Geometry.2 vols., 8vo, 3 50 

“ Problems and Theorems.8vo, 2 50 

Machine Construction.2 vols., 8vo, 7 50 

“ Stereotomy—Stone Cutting.8vo, 2 50 

“ Higher Linear Perspective .8vo, 3 50 

“ Shades and Shadows.8vo, 3 00 

Whelpley’s Letter Engraving.12mo, 2 00 


ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 

Illumination—Batteries—Physics. 

* Dredge’s Electric Illuminations. . . .2 vols., 4to, half morocco, 25 00 


" “ “ Yol. II.4to, 7 50 

Niaudet’s Electric Batteries. (Fishback.). ..12mo, 2 50 

Anthony and Brackett’s Text-book of Physics.8vo, 4 00 

Cosmic Law of Thermal Repulsion.18mo, 75 

Thurston’s Stationary Steam Engines for Electric Lighting Pur¬ 
poses.12mo, 1 50 

Michie’s Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light,.Svo, 4 00 

Barker’s Deep-sea Soundings.Svo, 2 00 

Holman’s Precision of Measurements.Svo, 2 00 

Tillman’s Heat. 8vo, 1 50 

Gilbert’s De-magnete. (Mottelay.).8vo, 2 50 

Benjamin’s Voltaic Cell.Svo, 3 00 

Reagan’s Steam and Electrical Locomotives.12mo 2 00 

ENGINEERING. 


Civil—Mechanical—Sanitary, Etc. 


* Trautwine’s Cross-section.Sheet, 25 

* “ Civil Engineer’s Pocket-book. ..12mo, mor. flaps, 5 00 

“ Excavations and Embankments.Svo, 2 00 

* “ Laying Out Curves.12mo, morocco, 2 50 

Hudson’s Excavation Tables. Yol. II. 8vo, 1 00 

6 






























Searles’s Field Engineering.12mo, morocco daps, 

Railroad Spiral.12mo, morocco flaps, 

Godwin’s Railroad Engineer’s Field-book. 12mo, pocket-bk. form, 

Butts’s Engineer’s Field-book.12mo, morocco, 

Gore’s Elements of Goodesy.8vo, 

Wellington’s Location of Railways... .8vo, 

* Dredge’s Penn. Railroad Construction, etc. . . Folio, half mor., 

Smith’s Cable Tramways. 4to, 

“ Wire Manufacture and Uses.4to, 

Mahan’s Civil Engineering. (Wood.).8vo, 

Wheeler’s Civil Engineering.8vo, 

Mosely’s Mechanical Engineering. (Mahan.).8vo, 

Johnson’s Theory and Practice of Surveying.8vo, 

“ Stadia Reduction Diagram. .Sheet, 22£ X 284 inches, 

* Drinker’s Tunnelling.4to, half morocco, 

Eissler’s Explosives—Nitroglycerine and Dynamite.8vo, 

Foster’s Wooden Trestle Bridges.4to, 

Ruffner’s Non-tidal Rivers.8vo, 

Greene’s Roof Trusses .8vo, 

“ Bridge Trusses. 8vo, 

“ Arches in Wood, etc.8vo, 

Church’s Mechanics of Engineering—Solids and Fluids_8vo, 

“ Notes and Examples in Mechanics.8vo, 

Howe’s Retaining Walls (New Edition.).12mo, 

Wegmann’s Construction of Masonry Dams.4to, 

Thurston’s Materials of Construction.8vo, 

Baker’s Masonry Construction. 8vo, 

“ Surveying Instruments.12mo, 

Warren’s Stereotomy—Stone Cutting.8vo, 

Nichols’s Water Supply (Chemical and Sanitary).8vo, 

Mason’s “ “ “ “ “ .8vo, 

Gerhard’s Sanitary House Inspection.16mo, 

Kirkwood’s Lead Pipe for Service Pipe.8vo, 

Wolff’s Windmill as a Prime Mover.8vo, 

Howard’s Transition Curve Field-book.12mo, moroccp flap, 

Crandall’s The Transition Curve.12mo, morocco, 


$8 00 

1 50 

2 50 
2 50 
2 50 
5 00 

20 00 

2 50 

3 00 
5 00 

4 00 

5 00 
4 00 

50 
25 00 

4 00 

5 00 
1 25 

1 25 

2 50 
2 50 
G 00 
2 00 

1 25 
5 00 
5 00 
5 00 
8 00 

2 50 

2 50 
5 00 
1 00 
1 50 

3 00 
1 50 
1 50 


7 


































Crandall’s Earthwork Tables .v.8vo, 

Patton’s Civil Engineering.,8vo, 

“ Foundations.8vo, 

Carpenter’s Experimental Engineering .8vo, 

Webb’s Engineering Instruments.12mo, morocco, 

Black’s U. S. Public Works. 4to, 

Merriman and Brook's Handbook for Surveyors. . . .12mo, mor., 

Merriman’s Retaining Walls and Masonry Dams.8vo, 

“ Geodetic Surveying.8vo, 

Kiersted’s Sewage Disposal.12mo, 

Siebert and Biggin’s Modern Stone Cutting and Masonry.. ,8vo, 
Kent’s Mechanical Engineer’s Pocket-book.12mo, morocco, 

HYDRAULICS. 


$1 50 
7 50 

5 00 

6 00 
1 00 
5 00 
2 00 
2 00 
2 00 
1 25 
1 50 
5 00 


Water-wheels—Windmills—Service Pipe—Drainage, Etc. 


Weisbach’s Hydraulics. (Du Bois.).8vo, 5 00 

Merriman’s Treatise on Hydraulics.8vo, 4 00 

Ganguillet&Kutter’sFlow of Water. (Hering&Trautwine.).8vo, 4 00 

Nichols’s Water Supply (Chemical and Sanitary).8vo, 2 50 

Wolff’s Windmill as a Prime Mover.8vo, 3 00 

Ferrel’s Treatise on the Winds, Cyclones, and Tornadoes.. .8vo, 4 00 

Kirkwood’s Lead Pipe for Service Pipe .8vo, 1 50 

Ruffner’s Improvement for Non-tidal Rivers.8vo, 1 25 

Wilson’s Irrigation Engineering..8vo, 4 00 

Bovey’s Treatise on Hydraulics.8vo, 4 00 

Wegmaun’s Water Supply of the City of New York.4to, 10 00 

Hazen’s Filtration of Public Water Supply.8vo, 2 00 

Mason’s Water Supply—Chemical and Sanitary.8vo, 5 00 

Wood’s Theory of Turbines. 8vo, 2 50 


MANUFACTURES. 

Aniline—Boilers—Explosives—Iron—Sugar—Watches— 

Woollens, Etc. 


Metcalfe’s Cost of Manufactures.8vo, 5 00 

Metcalf’s Steel (Manual for Steel Users).12mo, 2 00 

Allen’s Tables for Iron Analysis.8vo, 


8 



























West’s American Foundry Practice.12mo, $2 50 

Moulder's Text-book . 12mo, 2 50 

Spencer’s Sugar Manufacturer’s Handbook_12mo, mor. flap, 2 00 

Wieclimann’s Sugar Analysis. 8vo, 2 50 

Beaumont’s Woollen and Worsted Manufacture.12mo, 1 50 

* Reisig’s Guide to Piece Dyeing.8vo, 25 00 

Eissler’s Explosives, Nitroglycerine and Dynamite.8vo, 4 00 

Reimann’s Aniline Colors. (Crookes.).8vo, 2 50 

Ford’s Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.18mo, 1 00 

Thurston’s Manual of Steam Boilers. 8vo, 5 00 

Booth’s Clock and Watch Maker’s Manual.12mo, 2 00 

Holly’s Saw Filing.18mo, 75 

Svedelius’s Handbook for Charcoal Burners.12mo, 1 50 

The Lathe and Its Uses.8vo, 6 00 

Woodbury’s Fire Protection of Mills.8vo, 2 50 

Bolland’s The Iron Founder.12mo, 2 50 

“ “ “ Supplement.12mo, 2 50 

“ Encyclopaedia of Founding Terms..12mo, 3 00 

Bouvier’s Handbook on Oil Painting.12mo, 2 00 

Steven’s House Painting.18mo, 75 

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 


Strength—Elasticity—Resistance, Etc. 


Thurston’s Materials of Engineering.3 vols., 8vo, 8 00 

Yol. I., Non-metallic.8vo, 2 00 

Yol. II., Iron and Steel. . 8vo, 3 50 

Yol. III., Alloys, Brasses, and Bronzes.8vo, 2 50 

Thurston's Materials of Construction.8vo, 5 00 

Baker’s Masonry Construction.8vo, 5 00 

Lanza’s Applied Mechanics. .8vo, 7 50 

“ Strength of Wooden Columns.8vo, paper, 50 

Wood’s Resistance of Materials.Svo, 2 00 

Weyraucli’s Strength of Iron and Steel. (Du Bois.).Svo, 1 50 

Burr’s Elasticity and Resistance of Materials...Svo, 5 00 

Merriinan’s Mechanics of Materials.8vo, 4 00 

Church’s Mechanic’s of Engineering—Solids and Fluids.8vo, 6 00 

9 


































Beardslee and Kent’s Strength of Wrought Iron.8vo, $1 50 

Hatfield’s Transverse Strains.8vo, 5 00 

Du Bois’s Strains in Framed Structures.4to, 10 00 

Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration.8vo, 5 00 

Bovey’s Strength of Materials.8vo, 7 50 

Spalding’s Roads and Pavements.12mo, 2 00 

Rockwell’s Roads and Pavements in France.12mo, 1 25 

Byrne’s Highway Construction.*.8vo, 5 00 

Patton’s Treatise on Foundations. 8vo, 5 00 

MATHEMATICS. 

Calculus—Geometry—Trigonometry, Etc. 

Rice and Johnson’s Differential Calculus.8vo,. 3 50 

“ Abridgment of Differential Calculus_8vo, 1 50 

“ Differential and Integral Calculus, 

2 vols. in 1, 12mo, 2 50 

Johnson’s Integral Calculus.12mo, 1 50 

“ Curve Tracing. ,12mo, 1 00 

“ Differential Equations—Ordinary and Partial.8vo, 3 50 

“ Least Squares.12mo, 1 50 

Craig’s Linear Differential Equations.8vo, 5 00 

Merriman and Woodward’s Higher Mathematics.8vo, 

Bass’s Differential Calculus..12mo, 

Halsted’s Synthetic Geometry.8vo, 1 50 

“ Elements of Geometry. t ..8vo, 1 75 

Chapman’s Theory of Equations.12mo, 1 50 

Merriman’s Method of Least S mares.8vo, 2 00 

Compton’s Logarithmic Computations.12mo, 1 50 

Davis’s Introduction to the Logic of xllgebra.8vo, 1 50 

Warren’s Primary Geometry.12mo, 75 

Plane Problems. 12mo, 1 25 

Descriptive Geometry.2 vols., 8vo, 3 50 

“ Problems and Theorems.8vo, 2 50 

“ Higher Linear Perspective.8vo, 3 50 

“ Free-hand Drawing.12mo, 1 00 

“ Drafting Instruments.12mo, 1 25 


10 
































Warren’s Projection Drawing.12mo, $1 50 

Linear Perspective. 12 mo 1 00 

“ Plane Problems.. 12 mo, 1 25 

Searles’s Elements of Geometry. .g vo \ 50 

Brigg’s Plane Analytical Geometry. 12 mo, 1 00 

Wood’s Co-ordinate Geometry.gvo, 2 00 

Trigonometry...12mo, 1 00 

Mahan’s Descriptive Geometry (Stone Cutting). 8 vo, 1 50 

Woolfs Descriptive Geometry.Royal 8 vo, 3 00 

Ludlow’s Trigonometry with Tables. (Bass.). 8 vo, 3 00 

Logarithmic and Other Tables. (Bass.). 8 vo, 2 00 

Baker’s Elliptic Functions. 8 vo, 1 50 

Parker’s Quadrature of the Circle... 8 vo, 2 50 

Totten’s Metrology.'. 8 vo, 2 50 

Ballard’s Pyramid Problem. 8 vo, 1 50 

Barnard’s Pyramid Problem. 8 vo, 1 50 


MECHANICS-MACHINERY. 

Text-books and Practical Works. 


Dana’s Elementary Mechanics.12mo, 1 50 

Wood’s “ “ .12mo, 1 25 

M . “ “ Supplement and Key. 1 25 

“ Analytical Mechanics. 8vo, 3 00 

Michie’s Analytical Mechanics.8vo, 4 00 

Merriman’s Mechanics of Materials. Svo, 4 00 

Church’s Mechanics of Engineering.8vo, 6 00 

“ Notes and Examples in Mechanics.Svo, 2 00 

Mosely’s Mechanical Engineering. (Mahan.).Svo, 5 00 

Weisbach’s Mechanics of Engineering. Yol. III., Part I., 

Sec. I. (Klein.).Svo, 5 00 

Weisbach’s Mechanics of Engineering. Yol. III., Part I., 

Sec. II. (Klein.).Svo, 5 00 

Weisbach’s Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.)..8vo, 5 00 

“ Steam Engines. (Du Bois.)....Svo, 5 00 

Lanza’s Applied Mechanics.Svo, 7 50 


11 































Orehore’s Mechanics of the Girder. 8 vo, 

MacCord’s Kinematics. 8 vo, 

Thurston’s Friction and Lost Work. 8 vo, 

“ The Animal as a Machine. 12mo, 

Hall’s Car Lubrication. 12mo, 

Warren’s Machine Construction.2 vols., 8 vo, 

Chordal’s Letters to Mechanics.12mo, 

The Lathe and Its Uses. 8 vo, 

Cromwell’s Toothed Gearing.12mo, 

“ Belts and Pulleys.12mo, 

Du Bois’s Mechanics. Yol. I., Kinematics. 8 vo, 

“ “ Yol. II., Statics. 8 vo, 

“ “ Vol. III., Kinetics. 8 vo, 

Dredge’s Trans. Exhibits Building, World Exposition, 

4to, half morocco, 

Flather’s Dynamometers.12mo, 

“ Rope Driving.12mo, 

Richards’s Compressed Air.12mo, 

Smith’s Press-working of Metals. 8 vo, 

Holly’s Saw Filing.18mo, 

Fitzgerald’s Boston Machinist.18mo, 

Baldwin’s Steam Heating for Buildings.12mo, 

Metcalfe’s Cost of Manufactures. 8 vo, 

Benjamin’s Wrinkles and Recipes.12mo, 

Dingey’s Machinery Pattern Making..12mo, 


METALLURGY. 

Iron—Gold—Silver—Alloys, Etc. 


Egleston’s Metallurgy of Silver. 8 vo, 

“ Gold and Mercury. 8 vo, 

“ Weights and Measures, Tables.18mo, 

“ Catalogue of Minerals. 8 vo, 

O’Driscoll’s Treatment of Gold Ores. 8 vo, 

* Kerl’s Metallurgy—Copper and Iron... 8 vo, 

* “ “ Steel, Fuel, etc. 8 vo, 

12 


$o 00 

5 00 
3 00 
1 00 
1 00 
7 50 
2 00 

6 00 
1 50 

1 50 

3 50 

4 00 
3 50 

15 00 

2 00 
2 00 

1 50 
3 00 

75 

1 00 

2 50 

5 00 
2 00 
2 00 


7 50 
7 50 
75 
2 50 
2 00 
15 00 
15 00 
































Thurston’s Iron and Steel.8vo, $3 50 

“ Alloys.8vo, 2 50 

Troilius’s Chemistry of Iron..8vo, 2 00 

Kunhardt’s Ore Dressing iu Europe.8vo, 1 50 

Weyrauch's Strength of Iron and Steel. (Du Bois.).8vo, 150 

Beardslee and Kent’s Strength of Wrought Iron.8vo, 1 50 

Compton’s First Lessons in Metal Working.12mo, 1 50 

West’s American Foundry Practice.l2mo, 2 50 

“ Moulder’s Text-book.12mo, 2 50 

MINERALOGY AND MINING. — 

Mine Accidents—Ventilation—Ore Dressing, Etc. 

Dana’s Descriptive Mineralogy. (E. S.).8vo, half morocco, 12 50 

“ Mineralogy and Petrography. (J. D.).12mo, 2 00 

“ Text-book of Mineralogy. (E. S.).8vo, 3 50 

“ Minerals and How to Study Them. (E. S.).12mo, 1 50 

“ American Localities of Minerals.8vo, 1 00 

Brush and Dana’s Determinative Mineralogy.8vo, 3 50 

Rosenbusch’s Microscopical Physiography of Minerals and 

Rocks. (Iddings.).8vo, 5 00 

Hussak’s Rock-forming Minerals. (Smith.).8vo, 2 00 

Williams’s Lithology.8vo, 3 00 

Chester’s Catalogue of Minerals.8vo, 1 25 

“ Dictionary of the Names of Minerals.8vo, 3 00 

Egleston’s Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms.8vo, 2 50 

Goodyear’s Coal Mines of the Western Coast.12mo, 2 50 

Kunhardt’s Ore Dressing in Europe.8vo, 1 50 

Sawyer’s Accidents iu Mines.8vo, 7 00 

Wilson’s Mine Ventilation.16mo, 1 25 

Boyd’s Resources of South Western Virginia.8vo, 3 00 

“ Map of South Western Virginia.Pocket-book form, 2 00 

Stockbridge’s Rocks and Soils.8vo, 2 50 

Eissler’s Explosives—Nitroglycerine and Dynamite.8vo, 4 00 

13 






























'^Drinker’s Tunnelling, Explosives, Compounds, and Rock Drills. 

'4to, half morocco, $25 00 


Beard’s Ventilation of Mines.12mo, 2 50 

Ihlseng’s Manual of Mining. 8 vo, 4 00 


STEAM AND ELECTRICAL ENGINES, BOILERS, Etc. 

Stationary—Marine—Locomotive—Gas Engines, Etc. 


Weisbach’s Steam Engine. (Du Bois.). 8 vo, 

Thurston’s Engine and Boiler Trials. 8 vo, 

“ Philosophy of the Steam Engine.12mo, 

“ Stationary Steam Engines.12mo, 

“ Boiler Explosion. 12mo, 

“ Steam-boiler Construction and Operation. 8 vo, 


“ Reflection on the Motive Power of Heat. (Carnot.) 

12 mo, 

Thurston’s Manual of the Steam Engine. Part I., Structure 


and Theory. 8 vo, 

Thurston’s Manual of the Steam Engine. Part II., Design, 

Construction, and Operation. 8 vo, 

2 parts, 

Rontgen’s Thermodynamics. (Du Bois.). 8 vo, 

Peabody’s Thermodynamics of the Steam Engine. 8 vo, 

“ Valve Gears for the Steam-Engine. 8 vo, 

“ Tables of Saturated Steam. 8 vo, 

Wood’s Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, etc. 8 vo, 

Pupin and Osterberg’s Thermodynamics.12mo, 

Kneass’s Practice and Theory of the Injector. 8 vo, 

Reagan’s Steam and Electrical Locomotives.12mo, 

Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction.4to, 

Whitham’s Steam-engine Design. 8 vo, 

“ Constructive Steam Engineering. 8 vo, 

Hemenway’s Indicator Practice.12mo, 

Pray’s Twenty Years with the Indicator.Royal 8 vo, 

Spanglers Valve Gears. 8 vo, 

* flaw’s Marine Engines.Folio, half morocco, 

Trowbridge’s Stationary Steam Engines.4to, boards, 

14 


5 00 
5 00 
75 
1 50 
1 50 


2 00 

7 50 

7 50 
12 00 
5 00 

5 00 
2 50 
1 00 
4 00 
1 25 

1 50 

2 00 
10 00 

6 00 
10 00 

2 00 
2 50 
2 50 
18 00 
2 50 





























Ford’s Boiler Making for Boiler Makers.18mo, $1 00 

Wilson’s Steam Boilers. (Flather.).12mo, 2 50 

Baldwin’s Steam Heating for Buildings.12mo, 2 50 

Hoadley’s Warm-blast Furnace.8vo, 1 50 

Sinclair’s Locomotive Running.12mo, 2 00 

Clerk’s Gas Engine. 12mo, 


TABLES, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 

For Engineers, Mechanics, Actuaries—Metric Tables, Etc. 


Crandall’s Railway and Earthwork Tables.8vo, 1 50 

Johnson’s Stadia and Earthwork Tables.8vo, 1 25 

Bixby’s Graphical Computing Tables.Sheet, 25 

Compton’s Logarithms.12mo, 1 50 

Ludlow’s Logarithmic and Other Tables. (Bass.).12mo, 2 00 

Thurston's Conversion Tables.8vo, 1 00 

Egleston’s Weights and Measures..-18mo, 75 

Totten’s Metrology.... .8vo, 2 50 

Fisher’s Table of Cubic Yards.Cardboard, 25 

Hudson’s Excavation Tables. Vol. II.8vo, 1 00 

VENTILATION. 


Steam Heating—House Inspection—Mine Ventilation. 


Beard’s Ventilation of Mines.12mo, 2 50 

Baldwin's Steam Heating. 12mo, 2 50 

Reid’s Ventilation of American Dwellings.12mo, 1 50 

Mott’s The Air We Breathe, and Ventilation.16mo, 1 00 

Gerhard’s Sanitary House Inspection.Square 16mo, 1 00 

Wilson’s Mine Ventilation.16mo, 1 25 

Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings.8vo, 3 00 

HISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS, 

Alcott’s Gems, Sentiment, Language...Gilt edges, 5 00 

Bailey’s The New Tale of a Tub.8vo, 75 

Ballard’s Solution of the Pyramid Problem.8vo, 1 50 


Barnard’s The Metrological System of the Great Pyramid, ,8vo, 1 50 

15 




























. * Wiley’s Yosemite, Alaska, and Yellowstone.4to, $3 00 

Emmon’s Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountains. .8vo, 1 50 

Ferrel’s Treatise on the Winds.8vo, 4 00 

Perkins’s Cornell University...Oblong 4to, 1 50 

Ricketts’s History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.8vo, 3 00 

Mott’s The Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound. .Sq. IGnio, 1 00 

Rotherham’s The New Testament Critically Emphatliized. 


12mo, 1 50 

Totten’s An Important Question in Metrology.8vo, 2 50 

Whitehouse’s Lake Mceris.Paper, 25 


HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT-BOOKS. 

For Schools and Theological Seminaries. 

Gesenius’s Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to Old Testament. 

(Tregelles.). Small 4to, half morocco, 5 00 

Green’s Grammar of the Hebrew Language (New Edition).8vo, 3 00 

“ Elementary Hebrew Grammar.... .12mo, 1 25 

“ Hebrew Chrestomathy.8vo, 2 00 

Letteris’s Hebrew Bible (Massoretic Notes in English). 

8 vo, arabesque, 2 25 

Luzzato’s Grammar of the Biblical Chaldaic Language and the 

Talmud Babli Idioms.12mo, 1 50 

MEDICAL. 

Bull’s Maternal Management in Health and Disease.12mb, 1 00 

Mott’s Composition, Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food. 

Large mounted chart, 1 25 

Steel’s Treatise on the Diseases of the Ox.8vo, 6 00 

“ Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog.8vo, 3 50 

Worcester’s Small Hospitals—Establishment and Maintenance, 
including Atkinson’s Suggestions for Hospital Archi¬ 
tecture.12mo, 1 25 

Hammarsten’s Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.).8vo, 4 00 


16 






































